Applying LDA Topic Models to Analyze Research Abstracts

Welcome to the next phase of my journey preparing for my PhD comprehensive exams! Here, we delve deeper into the world of Natural Language Processing (NLP) to unearth the hidden themes within the 100+ research papers on my reading list. Previously, we’ve analyzed these papers’ abstracts using TF-IDF and weighted log odds. Now, we’ll explore topic modeling—a great method to detect patterns and themes across these vast collections of text.

What is Topic Modeling?

Imagine entering a bustling cafe where every table buzzes with a different conversation. Topic modeling is somewhat like having a superpower that lets you instantly understand the gist of every conversation in the room. It groups words that often appear together into themes or topics. Each topic is a mixture of words, and each document (or abstract, in our case) is a mixture of topics. This way, instead of poring over every paper, we can quickly grasp the major discussions in a field.

Here’s our exploration roadmap:

1. Preparation for Topic Modeling: We begin by transforming our cleaned text data from a tidy format, where each word is isolated in its own row, back to a wide format where each document is represented in a single row. This preparation is crucial for topic modeling.
2. Creating a Document-Term Matrix (DTM): We convert the wide-format text data into a document-term matrix. This matrix serves as the input for our topic modeling, enabling the detection of textual patterns.
3. Training Topic Models: Using Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), we train a series of topic models, experimenting with topics ranging from 10 to 130. Our objective is to identify the model that most accurately captures the core themes, assessed by their topic coherence.
4. Evaluating Models: We evaluate the semantic coherence of each model and use visualizations to determine the most effective model.
5. Analyzing Topic Model Results: Once we select our model, we delve into the topics it uncovered. We examine the prevalence and coherence of each topic and employ visualizations to show the most dominant topics and their pivotal terms.
6. Detecting Communities of Topics: Lastly, we explore how topics relate to each other using a dendrogram, which visually represents how topics cluster based on their co-occurrence in documents. This helps us understand which topics commonly intersect, shedding light on their relationships.

Join me as we transform academic text into a structured exploration of academic discourse across 100+ papers!

Creating input for modeling

First things first, let’s load the data we created in the last notebook. This dataset includes hundreds of abstracts from academic papers, with each row representing a single paper’s abstract along with its metadata, such as the title, authors, publication year, and the journal it appeared in.

knitr::opts_chunk$set(message = FALSE, warning = FALSE)

library(dplyr) # manipulate data
library(tidyr) # tidy data
library(ggplot2) # visualize data
library(kableExtra) # create pretty table
library(textmineR) # perform topic modeling
library(tidytext) # text mining tasks specific to tidy data
library(stringr) # string operations
library(purrr) # functional programming tools
library(furrr) # parallel processing using purrr
library(dendextend) # create and manipulate dendrogram objects
library(ComplexHeatmap) # create complex heatmaps
library(circlize) # circular visualization

# Setup parallel processing to speed up computationally intensive tasks
plan(multisession)

# Load the dataset created in previous notebook on paper abstract and paper metadata
reading <- readRDS("reading.rds")

# Preview the first 2 entries of the dataset 
reading %>% head(2) %>% kable()

id	paper_title	year	citation	abstract	research_stream	first_author	decade	authors	journal	field	type	method
1	Topological measures for identifying and predicting the spread of complex contagions	2021	Guilbeault, D., & Centola, D. (2021). Topological measures for identifying and predicting the spread of complex contagions. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1-9.	The standard measure of distance in social networks – average shortest path length – assumes a model of “simple” contagion, in which people only need exposure to influence from one peer to adopt the contagion. However, many social phenomena are “complex” contagions, for which people need exposure to multiple peers before they adopt. Here, we show that the classical measure of path length fails to define network connectedness and node centrality for complex contagions. Centrality measures and seeding strategies based on the classical definition of path length frequently misidentify the network features that are most effective for spreading complex contagions. To address these issues, we derive measures of complex path length and complex centrality, which significantly improve the capacity to identify the network structures and central individuals best suited for spreading complex contagions. We validate our theory using empirical data on the spread of a microfinance program in 43 rural Indian villages.	Novelty reception	Guilbeault, 2021	2020s	Guilbeault, D., & Centola, D. 2021	Nature	science	empirical	others
2	Quantum leaps or baby steps? Expertise distance, construal level, and the propensity to invest in novel technological ideas	2021	Mount, M. P., Baer, M., & Lupoli, M. J. (2021). Quantum leaps or baby steps? Expertise distance, construal level, and the propensity to invest in novel technological ideas. Strategic Management Journal.	Deliberate cognition is an important mechanism for overcoming inertia. Yet, the precise nature of cognition that propels decision-makers to endorse novelty is not well understood. We propose that expertise distance is a fundamental force shaping decision-makers' willingness to invest in novelty. We further suggest that the level of mental construal through which information is processed moderates the effect of expertise distance on investment propensity, principally by changing decision-makers' perceptions of an idea's novelty and usefulness. We test our theory in two studies. Study 1 is a field study of 120 decision-makers considering a novel technological idea—quantum key distribution. Study 2 is an experiment that conceptually replicates our first study. Our findings contribute to the debate on strategic cognition and the microfoundations of strategic adaptation.	Novelty reception	Mount, 2021	2020s	Mount, M. P., Baer, M., & Lupoli, M. J. 2021	SMJ	management	empirical	experiment

Currently, each paper is just a number in our dataset. Let’s give them names that resonate more closely with their identity by combining the first author’s name and the publication year. It’s like assigning a more memorable name tag to each guest at our text analytics party!

# Prepare the data by creating a unique identifier for each document using the original author name column
reading %>%
  mutate(id = str_replace(first_author, ", ", "_")) %>% 
  select(-first_author) -> reading

With our data neatly labeled, let’s dive into text processing. Here’s what we do: - Break down each abstract into its fundamental building blocks—individual words. - Clean up these words by removing common stop words and numbers that don’t add much meaning. - Standardize words to their root forms, turning plurals into singulars. This way, variations like “results” and “result” are treated as one. - Reassemble our abstracts into the wide format (i.e., one document per row).

# Preparing the abstracts for topic modeling 
reading_unnest <- reading %>%
  # Selecting only the ID and abstract text columns for analysis
  select(id, abstract) %>% 
  # Tokenizing abstracts into individual words
  unnest_tokens(word, abstract) %>% 
  # Removing common English stop words to focus on relevant terms
  anti_join(get_stopwords()) %>% 
  # Filtering out tokens that are numeric as they likely do not contribute to thematic analysis
  filter(!str_detect(word, "[0-9]+")) %>% 
  # Normalizing plural words to their singular form to consolidate word forms
  mutate(word = case_when(str_detect(word, "[^e|aies$]ies$") ~ str_replace(word, "ies$", "y"),
                          str_detect(word, "[^e|a|oes$]es$") ~ str_replace(word, "es$", "e"),
                          str_detect(word, "[^ss$|us$]s$") ~ str_remove(word, "s$"),
                          TRUE ~ word)) %>% 
  # create id for each word within a reading
  group_by(id) %>% 
  mutate(ind=row_number()) %>% 
  # convert long table to wide table to create a column for each word in each reading 
  pivot_wider(id, 
              names_from = ind,
              values_from = word) %>% 
  # reorder rows based on id 
  arrange(id) %>% 
  # replace NA with empty space
  mutate_all(replace_na, "") %>% 
  # merge one-word columns together
  unite(col = abstract_ns, 
        # leave out id column
        -id, 
        # use a "" as a separator
        sep = " ",
        # remove input column
        remove = T)  -> reading_input

Joining, by = "word"

`mutate_all()` ignored the following grouping variables:
Column `id`
Use `mutate_at(df, vars(-group_cols()), myoperation)` to silence the message.

# Display the processed input data for topic modeling
reading_input %>% head(5) %>% kable()

id	abstract_ns
Abraham_2020	research explaining persistence gender inequality focused decision maker biase perpetuate inequity growing body work point mechanism bia may arise decision maker concerned satisfying third party audience using data member popular networking organization entrepreneur examine extent presence third party lead gender inequality resource exchange connection potential client show decision maker apt favor male network contact exchange involving third party considering whether connect contact male typed occupation decision maker display gender bia exchange involve third party sharing connection potential client contact gender neutral female typed occupation setting offer unique opportunity compare gender inequality exchange involving third party case involve third party providing direct evidence effect audience third party gender inequality
Askin_2017	article propose new explanation certain cultural product outperform peer achieve widespread success argue product position feature space significantly predict popular success using tool computer science construct novel dataset allowing us examine whether musical feature nearly song billboard’ hot chart predict level success cultural market find addition artist familiarity genre affiliation institutional support song’ perceived proximity peer influence position chart contrary claim popular music sound find song sounding much like previous contemporaneous production highly typical less likely succeed song exhibiting degree optimal differentiation likely rise top chart finding offer new perspective success cultural market specifying content organize product competition audience consumption behavior
Baer_2012	production creative idea necessarily imply implementation study examine possibility relation creativity implementation regulated individual motivation put idea practice ability network alternatively number strong relationship maintain using data employee supervisor result indicated individual able improve otherwise negative odd creative idea realized expected positive outcome associated implementation effort skilled networker developed set strong buy relationship
Balachandra_2019	consider role gender stereotyped behavior play investor evaluation men women owned venture contrary research suggesting investor exhibit bia women find woman entrepreneur diminish interest investor rather finding reveal investor biased display feminine stereotyped behavior entrepreneur men women alike study find investor decision driven part observation gender stereotyped behavior implicit association entrepreneur’ business competency rather entrepreneur’ sex
Bellezza_2014	research examine people react nonconforming behavior entering luxury boutique wearing gym clothe rather elegant outfit wearing red sneaker professional setting nonconforming behavior costly visible signal can act particular form conspicuous consumption lead positive inference status competence eye other sery study demonstrate people confer higher status competence nonconforming rather conforming individual positive inference derived signal nonconformity mediated perceived autonomy moderated individual difference need uniqueness observer investigation boundary condition demonstrate positive inference disappear observer unfamiliar environment nonconforming behavior depicted unintentional absence expected norm shared standard formal conduct

Once our abstracts are prepared, we transform them into a document-term matrix, which serves as input for our topic modeling.

# create document-term matrix as input for topic model
CreateDtm(doc_vec = reading_input$abstract_ns, 
          doc_names = reading_input$id,
          # choose unigrams and bigrams
          ngram_window = c(1, 2)) -> reading_dtm

Training and evaluating topic models

Now we can start training our topic models 🎉 🙌. We experiment with different numbers of topics, from 10 to 130. It’s like tuning a radio; we’re trying to find the right frequency that brings out the clearest signal or, in our case, the clearest themes.

# Train multiple LDA models with varying numbers of topics (from 10 to 130)
many_models_lda <- tibble(K = c(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130)) %>%
  mutate(topic_model = future_map(K, ~ FitLdaModel(dtm = reading_dtm, k = ., iterations = 5000))) %>% 
  arrange(K) %>% 
  # calculate semantic coherence
  mutate(semantic_coherence = map_dbl(topic_model, function(x) mean(x$coherence)))

# Save the trained models to an RDS file
saveRDS(many_models_lda, "many_models_lda.rds")

One way to find the “best” model (I use quotation marks because there are no hard and fast rules for choosing a model, it depends on your purpose), but one way is through semantic coherence, a measure how logically connected the words in a topic are. It helps us determine if a topic really makes sense or if it just throws together a bunch of unrelated words. TextmineR uses a special method called probabilistic coherence, with the following steps: - TextmineR first looks at the probability that if one word (say, “athlete”) appears in a document, another related word (say, “sports”) also appears. - It then compares this contextual probability to the general probability of finding the second word (“sports”) in any document, regardless of the presence of the first word (“athlete”). The intuition here is that if the first word significantly increases the likelihood of the second word’s presence more than its general occurrence across all documents, then the two words have a meaningful connection specific to that topic. If “sports” generally appears often across all documents, but its presence is not notably increased by the presence of “athlete,” then perhaps their pairing isn’t as significant as it initially seemed. - TextmineR assesses overall topic coherence by calculating such differences for all pairs of top words in a topic and averaging them. A higher average indicates that words in a topic significantly enhance the presence of each other, reflecting a well-connected, meaningful topic.

The essence of TextmineR’s semantic coherence measure lies in determining not just the co-occurrence but the meaningful enhancement of word presence by other words within a topic.

Ok, let’s calculate the average topic coherence for each of our models and create a line graph to see how topic coherence changes across a range of topic numbers. This graph helps us see which model does the best job at grouping words into meaningful topics.

readRDS("many_models_lda.rds") -> many_models_lda
# Visualize the semantic coherence of each model to identify the optimal number of topics
many_models_lda %>% 
  ggplot(aes(K, semantic_coherence)) +
  geom_line(size = 1.5,
            color = "#be1558") +
  labs(x = "K (number of topics)",
       y = "Average Coherence of Topics",
       title = "Semantic coherence by number of topics") +
  theme_minimal() +  # Use a minimal theme as a base

# Remove the series of topic models trained from memory to free up space
rm(many_models_lda)

It seems that 100 topics give us the model with highest semantic coherence. Let’s get the results of that model and see what it gives us!

# Retrieve the model with the highest semantic coherence
many_models_lda %>% 
  slice_max(semantic_coherence) %>% 
  pull(K) -> k

# get the output of the model with higest sematic coherence
model_100 <- many_models_lda %>% 
  filter(K == k) %>% 
  pull(topic_model) %>% 
  .[[1]]

# Save the best performing model to an RDS file
saveRDS(model_100, "model_100.rds")
rm(many_models_lda)

Analyzing topic model results

As a first step to understanding LDA results, let’s get a summary table describing the topics LDA discovers. The SummarizeTopics() gives us the following metrics about each topic:

• label offers a quick tag or name for the topic, derived from its most defining terms.
• prevalence is a measure of popularity. It tells us how often a topic shows up in our dataset. If our dataset were a dinner party, a high prevalence means a topic is a common guest at many tables; it’s something that captures the interest or concern of many researchers.
• coherence measures how much sense a topic makes. It’s about clarity and connection. When a topic has high coherence, it means the words that make up this topic aren’t just random words thrown together; they share a meaningful relationship, making the topic understandable and insightful.
• top_terms_phi and top_terms_gamma give us a peek into the key words that define each topic. While both relate to terms important to the topic, they come from slightly different angles:
  • top_terms_phi points to the most common words within the topic. These are like the common themes or general knowledge that everyone in this topic area talks about—they’re familiar and frequently used.
  • top_terms_gamma, on the other hand, shows the words most exclusive to the topic—these words are rare or unique in other discussions but common in this one, like the signature of the topic.

model_100 <- readRDS("model_100.rds")
# create summary of topics
SummarizeTopics(model_100)  -> model_100_sum

model_100_sum %>% 
  kbl(caption = "Summary of 100 topics", col.names = NULL) %>% 
  kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "responsive"), fixed_thead = T) %>% 
  add_header_above(c("ID","topic","% of discourse","coherence","central terms \n high pr(term | topic)","specific terms \n high pr(topic | term)")) %>% 
  scroll_box(width = "100%", height = "700px")

Summary of 100 topics

ID	topic	% of discourse	coherence	central terms high pr(term | topic)	specific terms high pr(topic | term)
t_1	hierarchy_authority	0.91	0.093	organizational, structure, innovation, behavioral, selection	behavioral, hierarchy_authority, phase_innovation, authority, organizational_design
t_2	peer_mentoring	0.76	0.600	engineering, women, retention, mentoring, aspiration	engineering, retention, aspiration, peer_mentoring, retention_engineering
t_3	contribution_collaborative	1.05	0.062	study, women, task, lower, confront	task, confront, situation, replicate, study
t_4	social_capital	1.66	0.227	social, social_capital, capital, network, effect	social_capital, capital, access_social, institutional_sex, job_finding
t_5	social_capital	0.81	0.408	parenthood, quality, evidence, positively, status	parenthood, parenthood_status, quality_social, quality, status_quality
t_6	incremental_innovativeness	1.25	0.443	innovativeness, crowdfunding, funding, campaign, feature	innovativeness, crowdfunding, campaign, crowdfunder, incremental_innovativeness
t_7	board_director	1.02	0.233	panel, firm, explore, organization, preference	panel, explore, firm, adoption_digital, preference_novelty
t_8	gender_inequality	0.95	0.255	party, connection, exchange, inequality, gender_inequality	party, exchange, connection, involve, occupation
t_9	male_female	0.96	0.159	difference, sex, recall, differ, contrast	recall, difference, contrast, explain_difference, prime
t_10	contagion_concern	0.97	0.094	diffusion, study, theoretical, organization, concern	diffusion, contagion_concern, theoretical_empirical, concern, concern_study
t_11	institutional_theory	1.01	0.259	strategic, theory, optimal_distinctiveness, management, optimal	optimal_distinctiveness, strategic, institutional_theory, strategic_management, management
t_12	social_network	0.68	0.791	organized, brain, crime, organized_crime, prohibition	organized, brain, crime, organized_crime, prohibition
t_13	stereotypical_voice	0.89	0.295	voice, positive, idea, stereotypical, stereotypical_voice	voice, stereotypical, stereotypical_voice, counter_stereotypical, trait
t_14	contact_hand	1.33	0.062	entrepreneur, support, difference, resource, financial	financial, contact_hand, developing, developing_country, financial_resource
t_15	content_network	0.98	0.071	idea, content, high, connectivity, chart	content, connectivity, chart, content_network, idea_diffusion
t_16	job_searching	1.11	0.170	status, network, laboratory, survey, condition	laboratory, subsection, subsection_network, threat, status
t_17	friendship_network	0.87	0.606	broker, performance, friendship_network, friendship, mba	broker, friendship_network, friendship, mba, mba_student
t_18	knowledge_creativity	0.79	0.104	cue, theory, knowledge, finding, chinese	cue, chinese, american, range_cue, current
t_19	negative_tie	0.78	0.071	work, negative, tie, study, cite	cite, negative_tie, negative_work, rich, tie
t_20	established_institutional	0.90	0.324	field, outsider, offer, established, ability	outsider, established_institutional, institutional_field, gain, examining
t_21	selection_system	1.02	0.200	selection, product, selection_system, system, feature	selection_system, cultural_product, selection, changing, system
t_22	men_women	1.79	0.289	women, men, gender, men_women, network	men, men_women, women, woman, differently
t_23	receiving_side	1.00	0.246	research, literature, future, future_research, important	future_research, future, literature, research, reorientation
t_24	creativity_assessment	1.48	0.311	idea, creativity, creative, creative_idea, assessment	assessment, creativity_assessment, creative_idea, creativity_innovation, creativity
t_25	perspective_suggesting	1.05	0.075	perspective, individual, organizational, suggesting, perspective_suggesting	suggesting, perspective_suggesting, perspective, coevolve, fully_understood
t_26	underrepresented_group	0.85	0.079	contribution, group, scientific, diversity, innovation	racial, underrepresented, underrepresented_group, contribution, contribution_gender
t_27	weak_ty	0.96	0.364	ty, weak, network, ty_phase, weak_ty	weak, ty, ty_phase, weak_ty, strong
t_28	hedge_fund	0.80	0.194	organizational, fund, identity, attention, nonconforming	fund, find_investor, hedge, hedge_fund, nonconformist
t_29	success_cultural	0.81	0.426	song, cultural, find, product, genre	song, genre, manipulating, success_cultural, contrary
t_30	collaboration_tool	0.89	0.252	employee, tool, digital, benefit, adoption	tool, digital, employee, collaboration_tool, digital_collaboration
t_31	firm_performance	1.20	0.146	relationship, performance, hierarchy, firm, informal	hierarchy, relationship, informal, colleague, network_data
t_32	cognitive_resource	0.98	0.224	evaluation, resource, distraction, control, cognitive_resource	distraction, cognitive_resource, evaluation, alternative, evaluate
t_33	job_searching	1.14	0.249	job, searching, career, effectiveness, analysi	searching, effectiveness, job_searching, based_job, labor
t_34	receiving_side	1.03	0.163	creativity, review, side, scientific, receiving	receiving_side, side_creativity, variable, side, receiving
t_35	social_capital	0.77	0.569	nonmutual, status, helping, student, influence	nonmutual, helping, giving, mobilization, nonmutual_giving
t_36	work_family	0.81	0.404	work, work_family, family, program, family_program	work_family, family, family_program, nonwork, worker
t_37	radical_idea	0.82	0.291	market, art, radical, periphery, radical_idea	periphery, radical_idea, art, radical, move
t_38	social_network	0.99	0.128	people, structure, identify, research, network_structure	network_structure, identify, structure, key, people
t_39	entrepreneurial_activity	0.89	0.543	ict, activity, entrepreneurial, ty, entrepreneurial_activity	ict, entrepreneurial_activity, family_community, men_power, ty_family
t_40	design_strategy	0.96	0.079	analysi, innovation, existing, industry, design	analysi, edison, offer_women, simultaneously, existing
t_41	novelty_recognition	1.02	0.234	novelty, recognition, novelty_recognition, affect, research_social	novelty, recognition, novelty_recognition, research_social, acclaimed
t_42	network_effect	0.77	0.079	inequality, effect, difference, evidence, cumulative	inequality, cumulative, cumulative_advantage, network_effect, review_evidence
t_43	contact_neighborhood	0.79	0.484	contagion, neighborhood, contact, contact_neighborhood, size	neighborhood, contact_neighborhood, affected, individual_contact, probability
t_44	leadership_position	0.85	0.364	centrality, student, placement, leadership, position	placement, placing, leadership_position, circle, high_placing
t_45	decision_maker	0.94	0.218	decision, role, decision_maker, maker, cognition	decision, economic_mindset, decision_maker, cognition, maker_role
t_46	construal_level	0.90	0.191	people, level, construal, low, show	construal, low, construal_level, level_construal, priming
t_47	absence_tangible	0.95	0.295	inconsistency, reward, provide, market, subject	inconsistency, reward, pablo, style, atypicality
t_48	bia_novelty	0.92	0.093	group, novelty, usefulness, process, tension	bia_novelty, overcoming, usefulness, tension, overcoming_bia
t_49	perceived_creativity	1.11	0.109	study, perceived, effect, creativity, perceived_creativity	perceived_creativity, identical, perceived, evaluated, stereotypically
t_50	acute_cultural	0.69	0.440	combination, distance, distant, entrant, part	combination, distant, entrant, distance, part
t_51	creative_idea	1.13	0.187	idea, creative, participant, condition, creative_idea	selected, participant, idea_selection, idea_creative, condition_selected
t_52	contagion_concern	1.19	0.229	innovation, literature, complexity, development, processe	complexity, development, chapter, broader, chapter_review
t_53	social_media	1.05	0.230	gender, gap, gender_gap, network, resource	gender_gap, gap, gender, board_director, divide
t_54	led_venture	1.08	0.211	venture, entrepreneur, female, stereotype, find	venture, stereotype, warmth, led, impact_framing
t_55	female_minority	1.25	0.166	network, ty, homophily, greater, tendency	homophily, tendency, male_network, similar, homophilous
t_56	complex_contagion	1.20	0.521	contagion, complex, complex_contagion, peer, length	complex, complex_contagion, contagion, length, path_length
t_57	focused_question	0.86	0.136	question, entrepreneur, focused, funding, focused_question	focused_question, focused, funding, prevention_focused, question
t_58	cultural_element	1.08	0.563	element, cultural_element, vi, cultural, popularity	element, cultural_element, vi, popularity, affiliated
t_59	ability_carry	0.75	0.047	opportunity, relate, information, controlled, highest	relate, opportunity, controlled, highest, achievement
t_60	career_success	0.82	0.321	network, contact, unc, unr, career	unc, unr, career_success, unc_unr, network_characteristic
t_61	nonconforming_behavior	0.93	0.296	positive, competence, nonconforming, inference, nonconforming_behavior	inference, nonconforming_behavior, observer, positive_inference, nonconforming
t_62	idea_generation	1.15	0.382	idea, phase, idea_generation, individual, generation	phase, idea_generation, journey, elaboration, idea_elaboration
t_63	novelty_creativity	0.83	0.252	focus, perceiver, creativity, study, novelty_creativity	perceiver, focus, novelty_creativity, scored, prevention_focus
t_64	evaluator_proposal	1.02	0.362	research, project, proposal, evaluator, evaluation	proposal, project, evaluator, implication_finding, systematically
t_65	social_media	0.80	0.279	social, social_media, media, online, economic	social_media, media, fgd, online_social, access_information
t_66	charismatic_leadership	0.93	0.567	leader, charismatic, leadership, perceived, attribution	charismatic, leader, attribution, leadership, attribution_charismatic
t_67	critical_mass	1.05	0.297	social, critical, critical_mass, mass, expected	critical, critical_mass, mass, social_convention, social_change
t_68	network_utilization	0.80	0.322	utilization, employee, minority, network_utilization, majority	utilization, network_utilization, leadership_advancement, limit, majority_employee
t_69	normative_influence	1.01	0.049	group, women, based, influence, normative_influence	normative_influence, microfinance, capital_normative, economic_ty, microfinance_group
t_70	credit_attribution	1.15	0.149	credit, demonstrate, performance, work, credit_attribution	credit, credit_attribution, demonstrate, attribution_group, coauthor
t_71	homophilous_ty	1.01	0.086	individual, increase, technology, depend, level	increase, homophilous_ty, normative_pressure, sense, social_processe
t_72	social_network	1.98	0.166	network, social, social_network, individual, structural	social_network, network, social, structural, individual
t_73	bia_creativity	0.90	0.119	people, uncertainty, bia, experiment, bia_creativity	uncertainty, bia_creativity, order, bia, goal
t_74	creative_potential	1.31	0.147	social, potential, creative, creative_potential, judgment	creative_potential, judgment, potential, categorization_expert, match_pitcher
t_75	resource_seeking	1.03	0.318	resource, seeking, behavior, resource_seeking, theory	seeking, resource_seeking, cor, cor_theory, engage
t_76	female_scholar	1.03	0.207	scholar, impact, online, effort, science	scholar, online, prior_work, million, dissemination
t_77	salary_offer	0.81	0.418	women, salary, offer, salary_offer, institutional	salary, salary_offer, coeducational, women_college, advice_ty
t_78	appeal_point	1.05	0.445	parent, negative, influence, subsidiary, creativity	parent, subsidiary, autonomous, diversification, gatekeeper
t_79	formal_mentoring	0.94	0.114	network, formal, mentoring, program, formal_mentoring	formal_mentoring, formal, mentoring, workplace, program
t_80	demand_side	0.88	0.334	scientist, side, year, sab, demand	scientist, sab, side, demand_side, gap_scientist
t_81	argued_recognition	0.99	0.189	work, author, highly, knowledge, audience	author, highly, knowledge, argued_recognition, conventional
t_82	cognitive_emotional	0.90	0.175	innovation, product, form, cognitive_emotional, emotional	product, cognitive_emotional, emotional, product_form, form
t_83	social_network	1.09	0.190	research, social_relation, term, agency, relation	term, social_relation, agency, direction, leading
t_84	central_peripheral	0.91	0.046	study, mechanism, perceived, advice, multiple	confronting, posit, predicting_success, resource_support, peripheral
t_85	creative_forecasting	1.03	0.241	manager, creator, field, success, forecasting	manager, forecasting, creator, creative_forecasting, predicting
t_86	female_male	0.51	0.371	personal_characteristic, prediction, strength, male_female, personal	personal_characteristic, associate, construction, sct, status_construction
t_87	job_seeker	1.18	0.255	contact, job, cross, status, gender	job_seeker, race, seeker, white, cross
t_88	team_member	0.86	0.145	role, team, occupy, member, perception	occupy, team, misperceived, team_member, member
t_89	creativity_wisdom	0.86	0.489	prestudy, experiment, behavior, creativity_wisdom, intelligence	prestudy, creativity_wisdom, intelligence, intelligence_creativity, layperson
t_90	compared_contemporary	0.94	0.581	design, contemporary, expressive, informational, compared	design, contemporary, expressive, informational, compared
t_91	social_impact	1.59	0.093	gender, social, impact, social_impact, signal	social_impact, led_venture, female_led, incongruity, signal
t_92	men_women	0.97	0.135	science, benefit, entrepreneurial, inventor, collaborative	inventor, collaborative, connect, collaborate, hole
t_93	creative_idea	0.98	0.072	study, approach, field, level, influence	supervisor, construction_theory, dual_approach, employee_creative, employee_supervisor
t_94	heterogeneous_audience	1.05	0.176	audience, cultural, consumption, typicality, object	consumption, typicality, conform, creativity_finding, object_vary
t_95	venture_capitalist	0.95	0.225	market, organization, label, appealing, ambiguous	label, appealing, ambiguous, capitalist, venture_capitalist
t_96	stereotyped_behavior	1.00	0.217	investor, behavior, reveal, demonstrate, decision	investor, stereotyped_behavior, reveal, entrepreneurship, bia_women
t_97	female_male	1.06	0.135	male, female, characteristic, result, theory	male, female, age, formation, characteristic
t_98	prior_experience	1.11	0.258	board, director, minority, influence, experience	board, director, prior_experience, minority_director, majority
t_99	social_capital	1.02	0.079	career, type, potential, advancement, disadvantage	advancement, film, disadvantage, career_advancement, heterogeneous_audience
t_100	minority_group	1.11	0.120	group, perception, minority, show, minority_group	minority_group, size_minority, motivational, perception_biase, real

Next, let’s see the 20 topics that are most prevalent in our corpus and create a graph for them.

model_100_sum %>% 
  # get the 20 most prevalent topics
  slice_max(prevalence, n = 20) %>% 
  # reorder the topics based on their prevalence
  mutate(topic = reorder(topic, prevalence)) %>% 
  # create a graph with topic on the x axis, prevalence in the y axis, 
  # add their most central terms as label, give each topic a different color
  ggplot(aes(x = topic, 
             y = prevalence, 
             label = top_terms_phi, 
             fill = topic)) +
  # create a bar graph
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  # horizontal alignment for text as bottom (0) so that the label will not overlap with bars
  geom_text(hjust = 0,
            # nudge label for y axis variable to create white space between label and bars
            nudge_y = 0.02,
            # change font type and font size of the label
            size = 3,
            family = "IBMPlexSans") +
  # flip x axis and y axis
  coord_flip() +
  # get rid of the space between bars and axis labels on y axis
  scale_y_continuous(expand = c(0,0),
                     # set limit for the y axis so that all the labels will appear
                     limits = c(0, 3.5)) +
  # change to theme tufte which strips graph of border, axis lines, and grids
  ggthemes::theme_tufte(base_family = "IBMPlexSans", ticks = FALSE) +
  # change font size of title and subtile
  theme(plot.title = element_text(size = 16, family="IBMPlexSans-Bold"),
        plot.subtitle = element_text(size = 13)) +
  # change text for axis and title and subtle
  labs(x = NULL, y = "Topic prevalence",
       title = "What are the most prevalent topics in the corpus?",
       subtitle = "With the top 5 most central words that contribute to each topic")

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Let’s also see the most coherent topics in our corpus.

model_100_sum %>% 
  slice_max(coherence, n = 20) %>% 
  mutate(topic = reorder(topic, coherence)) %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = topic, 
             y = coherence, 
             label = top_terms_phi, 
             fill = topic)) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  geom_text(hjust = 0, 
            nudge_y = 0.02,
            size = 3,
            family = "IBMPlexSans") +
  coord_flip() +
  scale_y_continuous(expand = c(0,0),
                     limits = c(0, 2.5)) +
  ggthemes::theme_tufte(base_family = "IBMPlexSans", ticks = FALSE) +
  theme(plot.title = element_text(size = 16, family="IBMPlexSans-Bold"),
        plot.subtitle = element_text(size = 13)) +
  labs(x = NULL, y = "Topic coherence",
       title = "What are the most coherent topics in the corpus?",
       subtitle = "With the top 5 most central words that contribute to each topic")

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Next, let’s create a scatterplot to see the relationship between topic coherence and prevalence.

model_100_sum %>% 
  ggplot(aes(coherence, prevalence)) + 
  geom_point(
    color = case_when(model_100_sum$prevalence > median(model_100_sum$prevalence) ~ "#d9a5b3", 
                      TRUE ~ "#1868ae"),
    size = 2) +
  ggrepel::geom_text_repel(aes(label = topic),
                           family = "IBMPlexSans",
                           box.padding   = 0.7,
                           direction = "y") +
  labs(title = "Scatterplot of topic prevalence and coherence",
       subtitle = "With above-median-prevalence topics in pink and below-median-prevalence \n topics in blue") 

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We can also get the papers that are most associated with a particular topic. To do that, we extract the topic prevalence for each paper, which is stored in the theta matrix in LDA results.

# get topic prevalence in each paper
paper_topic <- as.data.frame(model_100$theta)

# create id for each paper using row names
paper_topic$id <- row.names(paper_topic) 

# merge with orginal data
reading <- left_join(reading, paper_topic)

Joining, by = "id"

# write a function to filter out documents highly associated with each topic
get_top_paper <- function(topic) {
  var <- rlang::sym(topic) # when writing a function in which we use string as input for dplyr function such as filter(), need to use sym() and !! in the rlang package for the string variables
  reading %>% 
    # select citation, abstract and topic columns
    select(citation, abstract, !!var) %>% 
    # filter rows when prevalence of a particular topic is higher than 10 perceent
    filter(!!var > .1) %>% 
    # reorder rows based on topic names
    arrange(desc(!!var)) %>% 
    # rename variable
    rename(theta = !!var) -> top_paper
  return(top_paper)
}

# apply the function to each topic 
# select columns that start with "t_" then get column names and turn them into a variable called "topic" in a tibble
tibble(topic = reading %>% 
         select(starts_with("t_")) %>% 
         colnames()) %>%
  # apply function get_top_paper to each row in variable topic to create a variable called "top_paper" in a tibble
  mutate(top_paper = map(topic, get_top_paper)) %>% 
  # unnest list variable top_paper
  unnest(top_paper) %>% 
  # create pretty table using kable
  kbl(caption = "Topics that each paper is highly associated with") %>%
  kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "responsive"),
                fixed_thead = T) %>%
  scroll_box(width = "100%", height = "700px")

Topics that each paper is highly associated with

topic	citation	abstract	theta
t_1	Keum, D. D., & See, K. E. (2017). The influence of hierarchy on idea generation and selection in the innovation process. Organization Science, 28(4), 653-669.	The link between organizational structure and innovation has been a longstanding interest of organizational scholars, yet the exact nature of the relationship has not been clearly established. Drawing on the behavioral theory of the firm, we take a process view and examine how hierarchy of authority—a fundamental element of organizational structure reflecting degree of managerial oversight—differentially influences behavior and performance in the idea generation versus idea selection phases of the innovation process. Using a multimethod approach that includes a field study and a lab experiment, we find that hierarchy of authority is detrimental to the idea generation phase of innovation, but that hierarchy can be beneficial during the screening or selection phase of innovation. We also identify a behavioral mechanism underlying the effect of hierarchy of authority on selection performance and propose that selection is a critical organizational capability that can be strategically developed and managed through organizational design. Our investigation helps clarify the theoretical relationship between structure and innovation performance and demonstrates the behavioral and economic consequences of organizational design choice.	0.5633166
t_2	Dennehy, T. C., & Dasgupta, N. (2017). Female peer mentors early in college increase women’s positive academic experiences and retention in engineering. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(23), 5964-5969.	Scientific and engineering innovation is vital for American competitiveness, quality of life, and national security. However, too few American students, especially women, pursue these fields. Although this problem has attracted enormous attention, rigorously tested interventions outside artificial laboratory settings are quite rare. To address this gap, we conducted a longitudinal field experiment investigating the effect of peer mentoring on women’s experiences and retention in engineering during college transition, assessing its impact for 1 y while mentoring was active, and an additional 1 y after mentoring had ended. Incoming women engineering students (n = 150) were randomly assigned to female or male peer mentors or no mentors for 1 y. Their experiences were assessed multiple times during the intervention year and 1-y postintervention. Female (but not male) mentors protected women’s belonging in engineering, self-efficacy, motivation, retention in engineering majors, and postcollege engineering aspirations. Counter to common assumptions, better engineering grades were not associated with more retention or career aspirations in engineering in the first year of college. Notably, increased belonging and self-efficacy were significantly associated with more retention and career aspirations. The benefits of peer mentoring endured long after the intervention had ended, inoculating women for the first 2 y of college—the window of greatest attrition from science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors. Thus, same-gender peer mentoring for a short period during developmental transition points promotes women’s success and retention in engineering, yielding dividends over time.	0.7405694
t_3	Haynes, M. C., & Heilman, M. E. (2013). It had to be you (not me)! Women’s attributional rationalization of their contribution to successful joint work outcomes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(7), 956-969.	We investigated the tendency of women to undervalue their contributions in collaborative contexts. Participants, who believed they were working with another study participant on a male sex-typed task, received positive feedback about the team’s performance. Results indicated that women and men allocated credit for the joint success very differently. Women gave more credit to their male teammates and took less credit themselves unless their role in bringing about the performance outcome was irrefutably clear (Studies 1 and 2) or they were given explicit information about their likely task competence (Study 4). However, women did not credit themselves less when their teammate was female (Study 3). Together these studies demonstrate that women devalue their contributions to collaborative work, and that they do so by engaging in attributional rationalization, a process sparked by women’s negative performance expectations and facilitated by source ambiguity and a satisfactory “other” to whom to allocate credit.	0.2808917
t_3	Brands, R. A., & Rattan, A. (2020). Perceived Centrality in Social Networks Increases Women’s Expectations of Confronting Sexism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 46(12), 1682-1701.	This article integrates the study of intergroup relations and social network cognition, predicting that women who occupy central (vs. peripheral) advice network positions are more likely to confront a coworker’s gender-biased comment. Study 1 offers correlational evidence of the predicted link between perceived advice network centrality and confronting among employed women, uniquely in advice (but not communication) networks. Study 2 replicates and investigates two possible mechanisms—perceptions of the situation as public and perceived risk of confronting. Study 3 rules out order effects and tests an additional mechanism (expectations of the network members). Study 4 is an experiment that shows people expect central (vs. peripheral) women to confront more, even when she is lower (vs. equal) power. Study 5 replicates the core hypothesis in retrospective accounts of women’s responses to real workplace gender bias. Study 6 compares multiple potential mechanisms to provide greater insight into why centrality reliably predicts confrontation.	0.1527919
t_3	Hillman, A. J., Shropshire, C., & Cannella Jr, A. A. (2007). Organizational predictors of women on corporate boards. Academy of Management Journal, 50(4), 941-952.	Women are increasing in number among corporations’ boards of directors, yet their representation is far from uniform across firms. In this study, we adopted a resource dependence theory lens to identify organizational predictors of women on boards. We tested our hypotheses using panel data from the 1,000 U.S. firms that were largest in terms of sales between 1990 and 2003. We found that organizational size, industry type, firm diversification strategy, and network effects (linkages to other boards with women directors) significantly impact the likelihood of female representation on boards of directors.	0.1224299
t_4	Burt, R. S. (1998). The gender of social capital. Rationality and society, 10(1), 5-46.	Legitimacy affects returns to social capital. I begin with the network structure of social capital, explaining the information and control benefits of structural holes. The holes in a network are entrepreneurial opportunities to add value, and persons rich in such opportunities are expected to be more successful than their peers. Accumulating empirical research supports the prediction. However, women here pose a puzzle. The entrepreneurial networks linked to early promotion for senior men do not work for women. Solving the gender puzzle is an occasion to see how network models of social capital can be used to identify people not accepted as legitimate members of a population, and to describe how such people get access to social capital by borrowing the network of a strategic partner.	0.2384615
t_4	Lutter, M. (2015). Do women suffer from network closure? The moderating effect of social capital on gender inequality in a project-based labor market, 1929 to 2010. American Sociological Review, 80(2), 329-358.	That social capital matters is an established fact in the social sciences. Less clear, however, is how different forms of social capital affect gender disadvantages in career advancement. Focusing on a project-based type of labor market, namely the U.S. film industry, this study argues that women suffer a “closure penalty” and face severe career disadvantages when collaborating in cohesive teams. At the same time, gender disadvantages are reduced for women who build social capital in open networks with higher degrees of diversity and information flow. Using large-scale longitudinal data on career profiles of about one million performances by 97,657 film actors in 369,099 film productions between the years 1929 and 2010, I analyze career survival models and interaction effects between gender and different measures of social capital and information openness. Findings reveal that female actors have a higher risk of career failure than do their male colleagues when affiliated in cohesive networks, but women have better survival chances when embedded in open, diverse structures. This study contributes to the understanding of how and what type of social capital can be either a beneficial resource for otherwise disadvantaged groups or a constraining mechanism that intensifies gender differences in career advancement.	0.2113924
t_4	Song, L. (2012). Raising network resources while raising children? Access to social capital by parenthood status, gender, and marital status. Social Networks, 34(2), 241-252.	Does raising non-adult children facilitate or restrict access to social capital as network resources? Using data from a national sample of adults in the United States, I do not find evidence for the direct effect of parenthood on the three dimensions of social capital (diversity, extensity, and quality), but instead I find evidence for its interaction effects on the quality of social capital. There is marginal evidence that parenthood status is associated with the quality of social capital positively for men but negatively for women. There is evidence that parenthood status is associated with the quality of social capital positively for the married but negatively for the unmarried. Also parenthood status is associated with the quality of social capital negatively for unmarried women but positively for the other three gender-marital groups, in particular unmarried men. These findings suggest the structural interplay of parenthood status with gender and marital status, and indicate the motherhood penalty, the fatherhood premium, the single- parenthood penalty, the married-parenthood premium, and the single-motherhood penalty in reaching higher-quality, rather than more diverse and extensive, social capital.	0.2053659
t_4	Konrad, A. M., Radcliffe, V., & Shin, D. (2016). Participation in helping networks as social capital mobilization: Impact on influence for domestic men, domestic women, and international MBA students. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 15(1), 60-78.	This study examines participation in helping networks among MBA students and its impact on subsequent ratings of influence by peers. Helping networks reflect the mobilization of social capital where network contacts exchange social and material resources. As such, helping networks are distinct from friendship networks, which represent access to social capital but not necessarily its use. We identify three dimensions of social capital mobilization with different effects on status, specifically, mutual helping, nonmutual help giving, and nonmutual help receiving. Findings indicate that social capital mobilization through nonmutual help giving is a positive predictor of influence among peers at a later point in time. Nonmutual help receiving and mutual helping are unrelated to influence when nonmutual help giving is controlled. Gender moderates this relationship, but international student status does not. Nonmutual help giving does not enhance the perceived influence of women, particularly among domestic men. These findings support theories of status devaluation for marginalized groups and have implications for the value of the MBA for female students relative to their male peers. Future research on the predictors and outcomes of social capital mobilization can enhance understanding of the organizational experiences of diverse identity groups.	0.1909091
t_4	Sanyal, P. (2009). From credit to collective action: The role of microfinance in promoting women's social capital and normative influence. American sociological review, 74(4), 529-550.	Can economic ties positively influence social relations and actions? If so, how does this influence operate? Microfinance programs, which provide credit through a group-based lending strategy, provide the ideal setting for exploring these questions. This article examines whether structuring socially isolated women into peer-groups for an explicitly economic purpose, such as access to credit, has any effect on the women’s collective social behavior. Based on interviews with 400 women from 59 microfinance groups in West Bengal, India, I find that one third of these groups undertook various collective actions. Improvements in women’s social capital and normative influence fostered this capacity for collective action. Several factors contributed to these transformations, including economic ties among members, the structure of the group network, and women’s participation in group meetings. Based on these findings, I argue that microfinance groups have the potential to promote women’s social capital and normative influence, thereby facilitating women’s collective empowerment. I conclude by discussing the need for refining our understanding of social capital and social ties that promote normative influence.	0.1202765
t_4	McDonald, S. (2011). What's in the “old boys” network? Accessing social capital in gendered and racialized networks. Social networks, 33(4), 317-330.	Network processes have long been implicated in the reproduction of labor market inequality, but it remains unclear whether white male networks provide more social capital resources than female and minority networks. Analysis of nationally representative survey data reveals that people in white male networks receive twice as many job leads as people in female/minority networks. White male networks are also comprised of higher status connections than female/minority networks. The information and status benefits of membership in these old boy networks accrue to all respondents and not just white men. Furthermore, gender homophilous contacts offer greater job finding assistance than other contacts. The results specify how social capital flows through gendered and racialized networks.	0.1103226
t_4	McDonald, S., & Elder Jr, G. H. (2006). When does social capital matter? Non-searching for jobs across the life course. Social Forces, 85(1), 521-549.	Non-searchers - people who get their jobs without engaging in a job search - are often excluded from investigations of the role of personal relationships in job finding processes. This practice fails to capture the scope of informal job matching activity and underestimates the effectiveness of social capital. Moreover, studies typically obtain average estimates of social capital effectiveness across broad age ranges, obscuring variation across the life course. Analysis of early career and mid-career job matching shows that non-searching is associated with significant advantages over formal job searching. However, these benefits accrue only during mid-career and primarily among highly experienced male non-searchers. The results highlight the need to examine life course variations in social capital effectiveness and the role of non-searching as an important informal mechanism in the maintenance of gender inequality.	0.1083832
t_5	Song, L. (2012). Raising network resources while raising children? Access to social capital by parenthood status, gender, and marital status. Social Networks, 34(2), 241-252.	Does raising non-adult children facilitate or restrict access to social capital as network resources? Using data from a national sample of adults in the United States, I do not find evidence for the direct effect of parenthood on the three dimensions of social capital (diversity, extensity, and quality), but instead I find evidence for its interaction effects on the quality of social capital. There is marginal evidence that parenthood status is associated with the quality of social capital positively for men but negatively for women. There is evidence that parenthood status is associated with the quality of social capital positively for the married but negatively for the unmarried. Also parenthood status is associated with the quality of social capital negatively for unmarried women but positively for the other three gender-marital groups, in particular unmarried men. These findings suggest the structural interplay of parenthood status with gender and marital status, and indicate the motherhood penalty, the fatherhood premium, the single- parenthood penalty, the married-parenthood premium, and the single-motherhood penalty in reaching higher-quality, rather than more diverse and extensive, social capital.	0.6492683
t_6	Chan, C. R., & Parhankangas, A. (2017). Crowdfunding innovative ideas: How incremental and radical innovativeness influence funding outcomes. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 41(2), 237-263.	We investigate the effect of innovativeness on crowdfunding outcomes. Because crowdfunding campaigns characterized by greater incremental innovativeness are more comprehensible and generate more user value for typical crowdfunders, incremental innovativeness may result in more favorable funding outcomes. By comparison, campaigns that feature greater radical innovativeness are riskier to develop, harder for crowdfunders to understand and result in less favorable funding outcomes. This negative effect of radical innovativeness may be mitigated by incremental innovativeness, which may help crowdfunders to understand and appreciate radical innovativeness more. A sample of 334 Kickstarter campaigns provides support for our hypotheses.	0.7871795
t_6	Johnson, M. A., Stevenson, R. M., & Letwin, C. R. (2018). A woman's place is in the… startup! Crowdfunder judgments, implicit bias, and the stereotype content model. Journal of Business Venturing, 33(6), 813-831.	We examine investor stereotypes and implicit bias in crowdfunding decisions. Prior research in formal venture capital settings demonstrates that investors tend to have a funding bias against women. However, in crowdfunding – wherein a ‘crowd’ of amateur investors make relatively small investments in new companies – our empirical observations reveal a funding advantage for women. We explain the causal mechanism underlying this counterintuitive finding by drawing upon stereotype content theory and testing a dual path moderated-mediation model. Based on archival data and a follow-up experiment, our findings suggest common gender biases held by amateur investors function to increase female stereotype perceptions in the form of trustworthiness judgments, which subsequently increases investors' willingness to invest in early-stage women-led ventures. We discuss our results with specific attention to how our findings extend the entrepreneurship funding literature as well as the gender dynamics literature in entrepreneurship and organization research more broadly.	0.1298507
t_7	Criscuolo, P., Dahlander, L., Grohsjean, T., & Salter, A. (2017). Evaluating novelty: The role of panels in the selection of R&D projects. Academy of Management Journal, 60(2), 433-460.	Building on a unique, multi-source, and multi-method study of R&D projects in a leading professional services firm, we develop the argument that organizations are more likely to fund projects with intermediate levels of novelty. That is, some project novelty increases the share of requested funds received, but too much novelty is difficult to appreciate and is selected against. While prior research has considered the characteristics of the individuals generating project ideas, we shift the focus to the panel of selectors and explore how they shape the evaluation of novelty. We theorize that a high panel workload reduces panel preference for novelty in selection, whereas a diversity of panel expertise and a shared location between panel and applicant increase preference for novelty. We explore the implications of these findings for theories of innovation search, organizational selection, and managerial practice.	0.3608696
t_7	Hillman, A. J., Shropshire, C., & Cannella Jr, A. A. (2007). Organizational predictors of women on corporate boards. Academy of Management Journal, 50(4), 941-952.	Women are increasing in number among corporations’ boards of directors, yet their representation is far from uniform across firms. In this study, we adopted a resource dependence theory lens to identify organizational predictors of women on boards. We tested our hypotheses using panel data from the 1,000 U.S. firms that were largest in terms of sales between 1990 and 2003. We found that organizational size, industry type, firm diversification strategy, and network effects (linkages to other boards with women directors) significantly impact the likelihood of female representation on boards of directors.	0.2439252
t_8	Abraham, M. (2020). Gender-role incongruity and audience-based gender bias: An examination of networking among entrepreneurs. Administrative Science Quarterly, 65(1), 151-180.	While most research explaining the persistence of gender inequality has focused on how decision makers’ own biases perpetuate inequities, a growing body of work points to mechanisms of bias that may arise when a decision maker is concerned with satisfying a third party or audience. Using data from 2007 to 2013 on 2,310 members of a popular networking organization for entrepreneurs, I examine the extent to which the presence of third parties leads to gender inequality in resource exchange, or connections to potential clients. I show that decision makers are most apt to favor male network contacts in exchanges involving a third party when considering whether to connect a contact in a male-typed occupation. Decision makers do not display this gender bias in exchanges that do not involve a third party or when sharing connections to potential clients with contacts in gender-neutral or female-typed occupations. This setting offers a unique opportunity to compare gender inequality in exchanges involving a third party with cases that do not involve a third party, providing direct evidence of the effects of audiences or third parties for gender inequality.	0.6113300
t_8	Kilduff, M., & Lee, J. W. (2020). The integration of people and networks. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 7, 155-179.	Social networks involve ties (and their absence) between people in social settings such as organizations. Yet much social network research, given its roots in sociology, ignores the individuality of people in emphasizing the constraints of the structural positions that people occupy. A recent movement to bring people back into social network research draws on the rich history of social psychological research to show that (a) personality (i.e., self-monitoring) is key to understanding individuals’ occupation of social network positions, (b) individuals’ perceptions of social networks relate to important outcomes, and (c) relational energy is transmitted through social network connections. Research at different levels of analysis includes the network around the individual (the ego network), dyadic ties, triadic structures, and whole networks of interacting individuals. We call for future research concerning personality and structure, social network change, perceptions of networks, and cross-cultural differences in how social network connections are understood.	0.1145078
t_9	Brashears, M. E., Hoagland, E., & Quintane, E. (2016). Sex and network recall accuracy. Social Networks, 44, 74-84.	How does an individual’s sex influence their recall of social relations? Extensive research has shown that social networks differ by sex and has attempted to explain these differences either through structural availability or individual preferences. Addressing the limitations of these explanations, we build on an increasing body of research emphasizing the role of cognition in the formation and maintenance of networks to argue that males and females may exhibit different strategies for encoding and recalling social information in memory. Further, because activating sex roles can alter cognitive performance, we propose that differences in recall may only or primarily appear when respondents are made aware of their sex. We explore differences in male and female network memory using a laboratory experiment asking respondents to memorize and recall a novel social network after receiving either a sex prime or a control prime. We find that sex significantly impacts social network recall, however being made aware of one’s sex does not. Our results provide evidence that differences in male and female networks may be partly due to sex-based differences in network cognition.	0.4545894
t_9	Loewenstein, J., & Mueller, J. (2016). Implicit theories of creative ideas: How culture guides creativity assessments. Academy of Management Discoveries, 2(4), 320-348.	The current studies provide evidence of two distinct implicit theories of creative ideas and so help to resolve the debate over differences in creativity assessments between Chinese and American samples. In three studies using three methodologies (qualitative inductive, cultural consensus modeling, and experimental), we used data from 2,140 participants to reveal 26 domain general cues that can indicate whether a product or process is creative. About 95 percent of the Chinese used a broad range of cues, whereas about 75 percent of the Americans used a narrow range of cues. Members of both cultures found cues such as breakthrough, surprise, and potential to indicate creativity. In contrast, cues such as easy to use, feasible, and for a mass market were indicators of creativity for most Chinese and noncreativity for most Americans. Thus, in addition to domain knowledge, knowledge about creativity itself contributes to creativity assessments. Cross-cultural differences in knowledge about creativity can help explain differences in how members of different cultures assess creativity. These findings have implications for the scholarly conceptual definition of creativity and suggest an array of possibilities for research on creativity and innovation.	0.1361809
t_10	Naumovska, I., Gaba, V., & Greve, H. (2021). The diffusion of differences: A review and reorientation of 20 years of diffusion research. Academy of Management Annals.	The diffusion of organizational practices remains a central concern for scholars from diverse disciplines and backgrounds. We assess the most recent 20 years of research on interorganizational diffusion to establish findings that are now conclusive and identify important questions or areas of research that remain unaddressed. We identify five key issues with the literature, which are largely a consequence of viewing diffusion as a source of homogeneity across organizations. We further propose a point of view that calls for a more fundamental reorientation of diffusion research. Our main contention is that researchers have focused on diffusion processes as producing similarities among organizations but have overlooked theoretical and empirical indications that diffusion processes often create and sustain differences among organizations. We seek to draw attention to this omission, demonstrate its significance, and make a case for a reorientation of diffusion research. In doing so, we hope to advance a more realistic future research agenda that considers diffusion as a source of both homogeneity and heterogeneity across organizations.	0.5033149
t_10	Guilbeault, D., Becker, J., & Centola, D. (2018). Complex contagions: A decade in review. Complex spreading phenomena in social systems, 3-25.	In the last decade, the literature on complex contagions has rapidly evolved both empirically and theoretically. In this review, we discuss recent developments across four empirical domains: health, innovation, social media, and politics. Each domain adds new complexities to our understanding of how contagions emerge, spread, and evolve, as well as how they undergird fundamental social processes. We also discuss how these empirical studies have spurred complementary advancements in the theoretical modeling of contagions, which concern the effects of network topology on diffusion, as well as the effects of variation in threshold dynamics. Importantly, while the empirical studies reviewed in this paper complement existing theoretical work, they also present many opportunities for new theoretical extensions. We suggest three main directions for future development of research on complex contagions. The first concerns the study of how multiple contagions interact within the same network and across networks, in what may be called an ecology of complex contagions. The second concerns the study of how the structure of thresholds and their behavioral consequences can vary by individual and social context. The third area concerns the recent discovery of diversity as a causal variable in diffusion, where diversity can refer either to the diversity of demographic profiles among local peers, or to the broader structural diversity that local peers are situated within. Throughout, we take effort to anticipate the theoretical and empirical challenges that may lie ahead.	0.2838057
t_11	Zhao, E. Y., Fisher, G., Lounsbury, M., & Miller, D. (2017). Optimal distinctiveness: Broadening the interface between institutional theory and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 38(1), 93-113.	Attaining optimal distinctiveness—positive stakeholder perceptions about a firm's strategic position that reconciles competing demands for differentiation and conformity—has been an important focal point for scholarship at the interface of strategic management and institutional theory. We provide a comprehensive review of this literature and situate studies on optimal distinctiveness in the broader scholarly effort to integrate institutional theory into strategic management. Our review finds that much extant research on firm-level optimal distinctiveness is grounded in the strategic balance perspective that conceptualizes conformity and competitive differentiation as a trade-off along a single organizational attribute. We argue for a renewed research agenda that draws on recent developments in institutional theory to conceptualize organizational environments as more multiplex, fragmented, and dynamic, and discuss its implications for core strategic management topics.	0.5923077
t_12	Smith, C. M. (2020). Exogenous Shocks, the Criminal Elite, and Increasing Gender Inequality in Chicago Organized Crime. American Sociological Review, 85(5), 895–923.	Criminal organizations, like legitimate organizations, adapt to shifts in markets, competition, regulations, and enforcement. Exogenous shocks can be consequential moments of power consolidation, resource hoarding, and inequality amplification in legitimate organizations, but especially in criminal organizations. This research examines how the exogenous shock of the U.S. prohibition of the production, transportation, and sale of alcohol in 1920 restructured power and inequality in Chicago organized crime. I analyze a unique relational database on organized crime from the early 1900s via a criminal network that tripled in size and centralized during Prohibition. Before Prohibition, Chicago organized crime was small, decentralized, and somewhat inclusive of women at the margins. However, during Prohibition, the organized crime network grew, consolidated the organizational elites, and left out the most vulnerable participants from the most profitable opportunities. This historical case illuminates how profits and organizational restructuring outside of (or in response to) regulatory environments can displace people at the margins.	0.5735202
t_12	Smith, E. B., Brands, R. A., Brashears, M. E., & Kleinbaum, A. M. (2020). Social networks and cognition. Annual Review of Sociology, 46, 159-174.	Social network analysis, now often thought of simply as network science, has penetrated nearly every scientific and many scholarly fields and has become an indispensable resource. Yet, social networks are special by virtue of being specifically social, and our growing understanding of the brain is affecting our understanding of how social networks form, mature, and are exploited by their members. We discuss the expanding research on how the brain manages social information, how this information is heuristically processed, and how network cognitions are affected by situation and circumstance. In the process, we argue that the cognitive turn in social networks exemplifies the modern conception of the brain as fundamentally reprogrammable by experience and circumstance. Far from social networks being dependent upon the brain, we anticipate a modern view in which cognition and social networks coconstitute each other.	0.5735202
t_13	McClean, E., Kim, S., & Martinez, T. M. (2021). Which Ideas for Change Are Endorsed? How Agentic and Communal Voice Affects Endorsement Differently for Men and Women. Academy of Management Journal, (ja).	This paper explores how gender affects idea endorsement. We depart from the existing approach, which considers the effect of gender and other factors in isolation and propose that endorsement depends on who suggests which ideas and in what ways. Drawing upon Expectancy Violations Theory (Jussim Coleman, & Lerch, 1987) we argue that positive counter-stereotypical voice, conceptualized as an idea that signals desirable traits stereotypically associated with the opposite gender, is more likely to be endorsed compared to positive yet stereotypical voice (i.e., that which signals desirable traits consistent with stereotypical expectations of the speaker’s gender). We argue that communal voice for men and agentic voice for women constitute positive counter-stereotypical voice, whereas agentic voice for men and communal voice for women constitute positive stereotypical voice. Afterward, we examine why positive counter-stereotypical voice results in positive evaluations—endorsement—by arguing that it affects attributions of competence and benevolence, albeit differently for men and women. We test our hypotheses across three studies—one field and two experimental. Our post hoc experiment examines the nature and consequences of speaking up in a negative counter-stereotypical way (i.e., ideas that signal undesirable traits associated with the opposite gender). Combined, we contribute to both the voice and gender literatures and shed new light on our understanding of how and why women and men get their ideas endorsed.	0.7053640
t_14	Solano, G., & Rooks, G. (2018). Social capital of entrepreneurs in a developing country: The effect of gender on access to and requests for resources. Social Networks, 54, 279-290.	This paper addresses gender differences in the social capital of entrepreneurs in a developing country. Social networks are often an important asset for accessing resources; however, they may also be a liability in developing countries, since entrepreneurs are often expected to support their contacts. Using a recent survey among urban and rural Ugandan entrepreneurs, we focus on the financial resources that entrepreneurs can obtain from their contacts on the one hand, and requests for financial support made to the entrepreneurs from these contacts on the other hand. Our results show that there are gender differences associated with access to, and requests for, financial resources.	0.7256881
t_14	Milanov, H., Justo, R., & Bradley, S. W. (2015). Making the most of group relationships: The role of gender and boundary effects in microcredit groups. Journal of Business Venturing, 30(6), 822-838.	Relationships and networks are important for a range of entrepreneurial outcomes. However, gender scholars' efforts to compare networks across genders rarely extend to provide empirical evidence for the link between networks and performance. Building on expectation states theory and network perspectives, we examine between- and within-gender differences in the network size–performance relationship, highlighting the conditions under which some females leverage their relationships for firm performance better than others. Using data collected from microcredit entrepreneurs in Kenya, we find that the number of within-group ties positively influences firm performance but more positively for male entrepreneurs. For female entrepreneurs, this relationship is contingent on both their individual and their group's characteristics. We discuss implications and future research directions for the gender, networks, and microcredit literatures.	0.1379085
t_15	Deichmann, D., Moser, C., Birkholz, J. M., Nerghes, A., Groenewegen, P., & Wang, S. (2020). Ideas with impact: How connectivity shapes idea diffusion. Research policy, 49(1), 103881.	Despite a growing body of research on idea diffusion, there is a lack of knowledge on why some ideas successfully diffuse and stand out from the crowd while others do not surface or remain unnoticed. We address this question by looking into the characteristics of an idea, specifically its connectivity in a content network. In a content network, ideas connect to other ideas through their content—the words that the ideas have in common. We hypothesize that a high connectivity of an idea in a content network is beneficial for idea diffusion because this idea will more likely be conceived as novel yet at the same time also as more useful because it appears as more familiar to the audience. Moreover, we posit that a high social connectivity of the team working on the idea further enhances the effect of high content connectivity on idea diffusion. Our study focuses on academic conference publications and the co-authorship data of a community of computer science researchers from 2006 to 2012. We find confirmation for our hypotheses and discuss the implications of these findings.	0.5834356
t_16	Smith, E. B., Menon, T., & Thompson, L. (2012). Status differences in the cognitive activation of social networks. Organization Science, 23(1), 67-82.	We develop a dynamic cognitive model of network activation and show that people at different status levels spontaneously activate, or call to mind, different subsections of their networks when faced with job threat. Using a multimethod approach (General Social Survey data and a laboratory experiment), we find that, under conditions of job threat, people with low status exhibit a winnowing response (i.e., activating smaller and tighter subsections of their networks), whereas people with high status exhibit a widening response (i.e., activating larger and less constrained subsections of their networks). We integrate traditional network theories with cognitive psychology, suggesting that cognitively activating social networks is a precondition to mobilizing them. One implication is that narrowing the network in response to threat might reduce low-status group members' access to new information, harming their chances of finding subsequent employment and exacerbating social inequality.	0.5961749
t_16	Tian, F. F., & Liu, X. (2018). Gendered double embeddedness: Finding jobs through networks in the Chinese labor market. Social Networks, 52, 28-36.	Inspired by the concept of “double embeddedness,” we argue that the gender gap in network-based job searching depends on the degree of legitimacy of gender status beliefs across institutional contexts. Analyses from the 2008 Chinese General Social Survey show that the gender gap in network-based job searching is larger in the market sector than in the state sector, as the gender status beliefs are more legitimate in the former than in the latter. Additionally, the sector difference of the gender gap in network-based job searching is significant when the resources channeled through networks are information-related, but it is insignificant when the network resources are influence-related. These findings indicate that job searching is double embedded in social networks and in cultural institutions.	0.2591837
t_16	Brashears, M. E. (2008). Gender and homophily: Differences in male and female association in Blau space. Social Science Research, 37(2), 400-415.	Homophily, the tendency for similar individuals to associate, is one of the most robust findings in social science. Despite this robustness, we have less information about how personal characteristics relate to differences in the strength of homophily. Nor do we know much about the impact of personal characteristics on judgments of relative dissimilarity. The present study compares the strength of age, religious, and educational homophily for male and female non-kin ties using network data from the 1985 General Social Survey. It also compares the patterning of ties among dissimilar alters for both sexes. The results of this exploratory effort indicate that males and females are almost equally homophilous, although religious homophily exerts a stronger influence on females than males. Males and females do, however, differ in their tendency to associate with certain types of dissimilar alters. Education is essentially uniform for both sexes, religious difference is more important for females than males, and those over sixty or under thirty are less different from the middle categories of age for females than for males. The results suggest that males are able to bridge larger areas of social space in their non-kin interpersonal networks and likely accumulate greater social capital as a consequence.	0.1069164
t_16	Brashears, M. E. (2008). Sex, society, and association: A cross-national examination of status construction theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 71(1), 72-85.	Status construction theory (SCT) has established a set of sufficient conditions for the formation of status characteristics that define informal hierarchies. However, while it has proven successful in explaining the development of status-laden personal characteristics in the laboratory, relatively less attention has been devoted to its predictions at the societal level. This paper alters the current state of affairs by examining the predictions of status construction theory using the 2001 International Social Survey Program's networks module. This data source allows the comparison of a macro-level distribution of a goal object (authority positions) with a novel measure of status derived from the social networks literature. The results are consistent with the predictions of SCT, supporting the theory outside the laboratory and cross-nationally.	0.1069164
t_17	Brands, R. A., & Mehra, A. (2019). Gender, brokerage, and performance: A construal approach. Academy of Management Journal, 62(1), 196-219.	We present a new theory that seeks to explain differences in the performance of men and women friendship network brokers—individuals who bridge disconnected friends. In contrast to previous audience-centered explanations, our phenomenological theory emphasizes how brokers construe (i.e., perceive and interpret) their networks. We contend that when women perceive themselves as brokers in friendship networks they experience threat, rooted in negative stereotypes about women brokers, which undermines their performance. Using data from a cohort of MBA students, Study 1 finds that women (but not men) exhibit lower performance when they perceive themselves as brokers in small-group friendship networks. Using data from a larger group of MBA students, Study 2 replicates this finding and rules out the possibility that underlying differences in the propensity to connect those whom one bridges may explain the observed gender-based difference in broker performance. Using an experimental design, Study 3 finds that elevated anxiety about task performance and negative social evaluations mediate the relationship between brokerage and performance for women but not for men. Women and men differ in how they psychologically construe brokerage in friendship networks, and this difference helps to account for gender differences in the performance of network brokers.	0.5278481
t_17	Brands, R. A., & Kilduff, M. (2014). Just like a woman? Effects of gender-biased perceptions of friendship network brokerage on attributions and performance. Organization Science, 25(5), 1530-1548.	Do women face bias in the social realm in which they are purported to excel? Across two different studies (one organizational and one comprising MBA teams), we examined whether the friendship networks around women tend to be systematically misperceived and whether there were effects of these misperceptions on the women themselves and their teammates. Thus, we investigated the possibility (hitherto neglected in the network literature) that biases in friendship networks are triggered not just by the complexity of social relationships but also by the gender of those being perceived. Study 1 showed that, after controlling for actual network positions, men, relative to women, were perceived to occupy agentic brokerage roles in the friendship network—those roles involving less constraint and higher betweenness and outdegree centrality. Study 2 showed that if a team member misperceived a woman to occupy such roles, the woman was seen as competent but not warm. Furthermore, to the extent that gender stereotypes were endorsed by many individuals in the team, women performed worse on their individual tasks. But teams in which members fell back on well-rehearsed perceptions of gender roles (men rather than women misperceived as brokers) performed better than teams in which members tended toward misperceiving women occupying agentic brokerage roles. Taken together, these results contribute to unlocking the mechanisms by which social networks affect women’s progress in organizations.	0.1050209
t_18	Loewenstein, J., & Mueller, J. (2016). Implicit theories of creative ideas: How culture guides creativity assessments. Academy of Management Discoveries, 2(4), 320-348.	The current studies provide evidence of two distinct implicit theories of creative ideas and so help to resolve the debate over differences in creativity assessments between Chinese and American samples. In three studies using three methodologies (qualitative inductive, cultural consensus modeling, and experimental), we used data from 2,140 participants to reveal 26 domain general cues that can indicate whether a product or process is creative. About 95 percent of the Chinese used a broad range of cues, whereas about 75 percent of the Americans used a narrow range of cues. Members of both cultures found cues such as breakthrough, surprise, and potential to indicate creativity. In contrast, cues such as easy to use, feasible, and for a mass market were indicators of creativity for most Chinese and noncreativity for most Americans. Thus, in addition to domain knowledge, knowledge about creativity itself contributes to creativity assessments. Cross-cultural differences in knowledge about creativity can help explain differences in how members of different cultures assess creativity. These findings have implications for the scholarly conceptual definition of creativity and suggest an array of possibilities for research on creativity and innovation.	0.4678392
t_19	Merluzzi, J. (2017). Gender and negative network ties: Exploring difficult work relationships within and across gender. Organization Science, 28(4), 636-652.	This study applies a social network approach toward understanding gender and negative work relationships. Given that work is increasingly organized using diverse, informal work groups inside firms, we stand to benefit from better knowledge of whether and how negative interactions in the workplace may be gendered. Using rich network data collected inside two firms, this study examines the networks of professional managers citing a difficult work relationship (negative tie) revealing gender similarities and differences. Although women and men do not differ in their likelihood to cite a negative work tie, women are more likely (than men) to cite a woman as a negative tie. This propensity to cite a woman as difficult however is reduced among women who cite having more women in their social support networks at work compared with women citing fewer women for support. These effects remain robust to a host of controls and exploratory analyses that include analyzing the content of respondent explanations of the negative tie, formal rank differences between the respondent and target of the negative tie, and possible links to organizational commitment and subsequent employee exit. Overall, this study brings a fine-grained, relational perspective to the study of gendered negative work ties, contributing to scholarship on network disadvantage.	0.5900398
t_20	Cattani, G., Ferriani, S., & Lanza, A. (2017). Deconstructing the outsider puzzle: The legitimation journey of novelty. Organization Science, 28(6), 965-992.	The proposition that outsiders often are crucial carriers of novelty into an established institutional field has received wide empirical support. But an equally compelling proposition points to the following puzzle: the very same conditions that enhance outsiders’ ability to make novel contributions also hinder their ability to carry them out. We seek to address this puzzle by examining the contextual circumstances that affect the legitimation of novelty originating from a noncertified outsider that challenged the status quo in an established institutional field. Our research case material is John Harrison’s introduction of a new mechanical method for measuring longitude at sea—the marine chronometer—which challenged the dominant astronomical approach. We find that whether an outsider’s new offer gains or is denied legitimacy is influenced by (1) the outsider’s agency to further a new offer, (2) the existence of multiple audiences with different dispositions toward this offer, and (3) the occurrence of an exogenous jolt that helps create a more receptive social space. We organize these insights into a multilevel conceptual framework that builds on previous work but attributes a more decisive role to the interplay between endogenous and exogenous variables in shaping a field’s shifting receptiveness to novelty. The framework exposes the interdependencies between the micro-, meso-, and macro-level processes that jointly affect an outsider’s efforts to introduce novelty into an existing field.	0.4659919
t_21	Wijnberg, N. M., & Gemser, G. (2000). Adding value to innovation: Impressionism and the transformation of the selection system in visual arts. Organization science, 11(3), 323-329.	Valuation of cultural products tends to be problematic. In this paper, we provide insight into how valuation of cultural products takes place by describing the changing role and significance of different types of selection systems. Three basic types of selection systems are distinguished: market selection, peer selection, and expert selection. We show that the rise of a group of painters known as the Impressionists was facilitated by a change in the selection system of the visual arts industry from one dominated by peers into one dominated by experts. In the new selection system, innovativeness has become the most highly prized product characteristic, while a range of experts have begun to play an essential role, certifying the innovativeness of either individual artists or groups of artists.	0.6625899
t_21	Askin, N., & Mauskapf, M. (2017). What makes popular culture popular? Product features and optimal differentiation in music. American Sociological Review, 82(5), 910-944.	In this article, we propose a new explanation for why certain cultural products outperform their peers to achieve widespread success. We argue that products’ position in feature space significantly predicts their popular success. Using tools from computer science, we construct a novel dataset allowing us to examine whether the musical features of nearly 27,000 songs from Billboard’s Hot 100 charts predict their levels of success in this cultural market. We find that, in addition to artist familiarity, genre affiliation, and institutional support, a song’s perceived proximity to its peers influences its position on the charts. Contrary to the claim that all popular music sounds the same, we find that songs sounding too much like previous and contemporaneous productions—those that are highly typical—are less likely to succeed. Songs exhibiting some degree of optimal differentiation are more likely to rise to the top of the charts. These findings offer a new perspective on success in cultural markets by specifying how content organizes product competition and audience consumption behavior.	0.1207650
t_22	Ibarra, H. (1997). Paving an alternative route: Gender differences in managerial networks. Social psychology quarterly, 91-102.	This research uses the network-analytic concepts of homophily, tie strength, and range to explore gender differences in characteristics of middle managers' information and career support networks. When the effects of position and potential for future advancement were held constant, women's networks were less homophilous than men's. Women high in advancement potential, however, relied to a greater extent than both high-potential men and less high-potential women on close ties and relationships outside their subunits. On the basis of these findings, we suggest that different types of networks may provide alternative routes to similar career resources for men and for women.	0.2606299
t_22	Whittington, K. B. (2018). A tie is a tie? Gender and network positioning in life science inventor collaboration. Research Policy, 47(2), 511-526.	Collaborative relationships are an important anchor of innovative activity, and rates of collaboration in science are on the rise. This research addresses differences in men’s and women’s collaborative positioning and collaborator characteristics in science, and whether network influences on scientists’ future productivity may be contingent on gender. Utilizing co-inventor network relations that span thirty years of global life science patenting across sectors, geographic locations, and technological background, I present trends of men’s and women’s involvement in patenting and their collaborative characteristics across time. Amidst some network similarities, women are less likely to connect otherwise unconnected inventors (brokerage) and have greater status-asymmetries between themselves and their co-inventors. In multivariate models that include past and future activity, I find that some network benefits are contingent on gender. Men receive greater returns from network positioning for brokerage ties, and when collaborating with men. Women benefit from collaborating with women, and are more likely to collaborate with women, but both men and women collaborate with mostly men. I discuss the implications of these results for innovative growth, as well as for policies that support men’s and women’s career development.	0.1904977
t_22	Balachandra, L., Briggs, T., Eddleston, K., & Brush, C. (2019). Don’t pitch like a girl!: How gender stereotypes influence investor decisions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 43(1), 116-137.	We consider the role that gender-stereotyped behaviors play in investors’ evaluations of men- and women-owned ventures. Contrary to research suggesting that investors exhibit bias against women, we find that being a woman entrepreneur does not diminish interest by investors. Rather, our findings reveal that investors are biased against the display of feminine-stereotyped behaviors by entrepreneurs, men and women alike. Our study finds that investor decisions are driven in part by observations of gender-stereotyped behaviors and the implicit associations with the entrepreneur’s business competency, rather than the entrepreneur’s sex.	0.1834783
t_22	Brands, R. A., Menges, J. I., & Kilduff, M. (2015). The leader-in-social-network schema: Perceptions of network structure affect gendered attributions of charisma. Organization Science, 26(4), 1210-1225.	Charisma is crucially important for a range of leadership outcomes. Charisma is also in the eye of the beholder—an attribute perceived by followers. Traditional leadership theory has tended to assume charismatic attributions flow to men rather than women. We challenge this assumption of an inevitable charismatic bias toward men leaders. We propose that gender-biased attributions about the charismatic leadership of men and women are facilitated by the operation of a leader-in-social-network schema. Attributions of charismatic leadership depend on the match between the gender of the leader and the perceived structure of the network. In three studies encompassing both experimental and survey data, we show that when team advice networks are perceived to be centralized around one or a few individuals, women leaders are seen as less charismatic than men leaders. However, when networks are perceived to be cohesive (many connections among individuals), it is men who suffer a charismatic leadership disadvantage relative to women. Perceptions of leadership depend not only on whether the leader is a man or a woman but also on the social network context in which the leader is embedded.	0.1184615
t_22	Sarsons, H., Gërxhani, K., Reuben, E., & Schram, A. (2021). Gender differences in recognition for group work. Journal of Political Economy, 129(1), 101-147.	We study whether gender influences credit attribution for group work using observational data and two experiments. We use data from academic economists to test whether coauthorship matters differently for tenure for men and women. We find that, conditional on quality and other observables, men are tenured similarly regardless of whether they coauthor or solo author. Women, however, are less likely to receive tenure the more they coauthor. We then conduct two experiments that demonstrate that biases in credit attribution in settings without confounds exist. Taken together, our results are best explained by gender and stereotypes influencing credit attribution for group work.	0.1070796
t_22	Brands, R. A., & Kilduff, M. (2014). Just like a woman? Effects of gender-biased perceptions of friendship network brokerage on attributions and performance. Organization Science, 25(5), 1530-1548.	Do women face bias in the social realm in which they are purported to excel? Across two different studies (one organizational and one comprising MBA teams), we examined whether the friendship networks around women tend to be systematically misperceived and whether there were effects of these misperceptions on the women themselves and their teammates. Thus, we investigated the possibility (hitherto neglected in the network literature) that biases in friendship networks are triggered not just by the complexity of social relationships but also by the gender of those being perceived. Study 1 showed that, after controlling for actual network positions, men, relative to women, were perceived to occupy agentic brokerage roles in the friendship network—those roles involving less constraint and higher betweenness and outdegree centrality. Study 2 showed that if a team member misperceived a woman to occupy such roles, the woman was seen as competent but not warm. Furthermore, to the extent that gender stereotypes were endorsed by many individuals in the team, women performed worse on their individual tasks. But teams in which members fell back on well-rehearsed perceptions of gender roles (men rather than women misperceived as brokers) performed better than teams in which members tended toward misperceiving women occupying agentic brokerage roles. Taken together, these results contribute to unlocking the mechanisms by which social networks affect women’s progress in organizations.	0.1008368
t_23	Zhou, J., Wang, X. M., Bavato, D., Tasselli, S., & Wu, J. (2019). Understanding the receiving side of creativity: A multidisciplinary review and implications for management research. Journal of Management, 45(6), 2570-2595.	Understanding the receiving side of creativity has both scientific and practical value. Creativity can add value to organizations after it is perceived, evaluated, and eventually adopted. In this paper, we review four decades of empirical research on the receiving side of creativity scattered across several business and social science fields. A comprehensive framework surfaces out of our review, indicating four groups of factors affecting the evaluation and adoption of creativity, namely, characteristics of target, creator, perceiver, and context. Although the receiving side of creativity has received far less attention than the generative side in management literature, vibrant research efforts in other scientific fields have built a solid foundation to understand creativity receiving in the workplace. We call for more studies on this important topic and discuss how future research could contribute to its development by advancing conceptual clarity, methodological precision, and integration between theories, disciplines, and different sides of the creative process.	0.1662857
t_23	Naumovska, I., Gaba, V., & Greve, H. (2021). The diffusion of differences: A review and reorientation of 20 years of diffusion research. Academy of Management Annals.	The diffusion of organizational practices remains a central concern for scholars from diverse disciplines and backgrounds. We assess the most recent 20 years of research on interorganizational diffusion to establish findings that are now conclusive and identify important questions or areas of research that remain unaddressed. We identify five key issues with the literature, which are largely a consequence of viewing diffusion as a source of homogeneity across organizations. We further propose a point of view that calls for a more fundamental reorientation of diffusion research. Our main contention is that researchers have focused on diffusion processes as producing similarities among organizations but have overlooked theoretical and empirical indications that diffusion processes often create and sustain differences among organizations. We seek to draw attention to this omission, demonstrate its significance, and make a case for a reorientation of diffusion research. In doing so, we hope to advance a more realistic future research agenda that considers diffusion as a source of both homogeneity and heterogeneity across organizations.	0.1441989
t_23	Lim, J. H., Tai, K., Bamberger, P. A., & Morrison, E. W. (2020). Soliciting resources from others: An integrative review. Academy of Management Annals, 14(1), 122-159.	Resource seeking, or the act of asking others for things that can help one attain one’s goals, is an important behavior within organizations because of the increasingly dynamic nature of work that demands collaboration and coordination among employees. Over the past two decades, there has been growing research in the organizational sciences on four types of resource seeking behaviors: feedback seeking, information seeking, advice seeking, and help seeking. However, research on these four behaviors has existed in separate silos. We argue that there is value in recognizing that these behaviors reflect a common higher order construct (resource seeking), and in integrating the findings across the four literatures as a basis for understanding what we do and do not know about the predictors and outcomes of resource seeking at work. More specifically, we use conservation of resources (COR) theory as a framework to guide our integration across the four literatures and to both deepen and extend current understandings of why and when employees engage in resource seeking, as well as how resource seeking behaviors may lead to both individual- and collective-level outcomes. We conclude with a discussion of future research needs and how COR theory can provide a fruitful foundation for future resource seeking research.	0.1236453
t_24	Mueller, J., Melwani, S., Loewenstein, J., & Deal, J. J. (2018). Reframing the decision-makers’ dilemma: Towards a social context model of creative idea recognition. Academy of Management Journal, 61(1), 94-110.	Can decision-maker roles—roles with responsibility for allocating resources toward ideas—shape which ideas people in those roles view as creative? Prior theory suggests that expertise should influence creativity assessments, yet examples abound of experts in different roles disagreeing about whether the same idea is creative. We build and test a social context model of creative idea recognition to show how decision-maker roles can shift creativity assessments. In an experimental study, we show that relative to non-decision-making roles, decision-making roles inculcate an economic mindset and so lead to downgrading otherwise creative ideas with cues of low social approval. A quasi-experimental study triangulates and extends this finding showing that organizational decision-making roles can habitually evoke an economic mindset that shapes creativity assessments. In both studies, decision-maker role, economic mindset, and social approval levels were unrelated to idea usefulness ratings. By integrating work on organizational roles, economic mindsets, and implicit theories of creative ideas, we provide a broadly applicable theoretical framework to describe how social context shapes creativity assessments. This work has important implications for the creativity and innovation literatures, and suggests a new interpretation of the longstanding puzzle of why organizations desire but often reject creative ideas.	0.2605948
t_24	Lu, S., Bartol, K. M., Venkataramani, V., Zheng, X., & Liu, X. (2019). Pitching novel ideas to the boss: The interactive effects of employees’ idea enactment and influence tactics on creativity assessment and implementation. Academy of Management Journal, 62(2), 579-606.	Employees’ creative ideas often do not receive positive assessments from managers and, therefore, lose the opportunity to be implemented. We draw on Dutton and Ashford’s (1993) issue-selling framework to test a dual-approach model predicting that employees’ use of both high levels of idea enactment behaviors (characterized by use of demos, prototypes, or other physical objects when presenting ideas) and high levels of upward influence tactics will have an interactive effect on the extent to which their creative ideas are positively assessed by their supervisors and, in turn, implemented. We found support for this interactive effect of idea enactment and influence tactics in two studies: a field study of 192 employees and 54 supervisors in a video game and animation company and an experimental study with 264 participants. In the experimental study, we also demonstrated that the benefits of using this dual approach are more likely to accrue when selling a more novel idea rather than a less novel, more mundane one. Both studies highlight the mediating role of supervisors’ creativity assessment in implementing employees’ creative ideas.	0.2333333
t_24	Mueller, J. S., Wakslak, C. J., & Krishnan, V. (2014). Construing creativity: The how and why of recognizing creative ideas. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 51, 81-87.	While prior theory proposes that domain knowledge is the main factor that determines creativity assessments, we provide theory and evidence to suggest that situational factors can also alter what people view as creative. Specifically, we test the notion that one's current construal-level can shift what people perceive as creative. We employ three studies manipulating construal in two ways (i.e., with spatial distance and construal level mindset priming) to show that people with low-level and high-level construal orientations differ in creativity assessments of the same idea. We further show that low- and high-level construals do not alter perceptions of ideas low in creativity, and that uncertainty sometimes mediates the relationship between construal level priming and creativity assessments of an examined idea. These findings shed light on why people desire but often reject creativity, and suggest practical solutions to help organizations (e.g., journals, government agencies, venture capitalists) spot creative ideas.	0.1890052
t_24	Loewenstein, J., & Mueller, J. (2016). Implicit theories of creative ideas: How culture guides creativity assessments. Academy of Management Discoveries, 2(4), 320-348.	The current studies provide evidence of two distinct implicit theories of creative ideas and so help to resolve the debate over differences in creativity assessments between Chinese and American samples. In three studies using three methodologies (qualitative inductive, cultural consensus modeling, and experimental), we used data from 2,140 participants to reveal 26 domain general cues that can indicate whether a product or process is creative. About 95 percent of the Chinese used a broad range of cues, whereas about 75 percent of the Americans used a narrow range of cues. Members of both cultures found cues such as breakthrough, surprise, and potential to indicate creativity. In contrast, cues such as easy to use, feasible, and for a mass market were indicators of creativity for most Chinese and noncreativity for most Americans. Thus, in addition to domain knowledge, knowledge about creativity itself contributes to creativity assessments. Cross-cultural differences in knowledge about creativity can help explain differences in how members of different cultures assess creativity. These findings have implications for the scholarly conceptual definition of creativity and suggest an array of possibilities for research on creativity and innovation.	0.1613065
t_24	Mueller, J. S., Melwani, S., & Goncalo, J. A. (2012). The bias against creativity: Why people desire but reject creative ideas. Psychological science, 23(1), 13-17.	People often reject creative ideas, even when espousing creativity as a desired goal. To explain this paradox, we propose that people can hold a bias against creativity that is not necessarily overt and that is activated when people experience a motivation to reduce uncertainty. In two experiments, we manipulated uncertainty using different methods, including an uncertainty-reduction prime. The results of both experiments demonstrated the existence of a negative bias against creativity (relative to practicality) when participants experienced uncertainty. Furthermore, this bias against creativity interfered with participants’ ability to recognize a creative idea. These results reveal a concealed barrier that creative actors may face as they attempt to gain acceptance for their novel ideas.	0.1436090
t_24	Baer, M. (2012). Putting creativity to work: The implementation of creative ideas in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 55(5), 1102-1119.	The production of creative ideas does not necessarily imply their implementation. This study examines the possibility that the relation between creativity and implementation is regulated by individuals' motivation to put their ideas into practice and their ability to network, or, alternatively, the number of strong relationships they maintain. Using data from 216 employees and their supervisors, results indicated that individuals were able to improve the otherwise negative odds of their creative ideas being realized when they expected positive outcomes to be associated with their implementation efforts and when they were skilled networkers or had developed a set of strong “buy-in” relationships.	0.1342857
t_24	Harvey, S., & Mueller, J. S. (2021). Staying Alive: Toward a Diverging Consensus Model of Overcoming a Bias Against Novelty in Groups. Organization Science, 32(2), 293-314.	Organizations that desire creativity often use groups like task forces, decision panels, and selection committees with the primary purpose of evaluating novel ideas. Those groups need to keep at least some novel ideas alive while also assessing the usefulness of ideas. Research suggests, however, that such groups often prefer proven ideas whose usefulness can be easily predicted and reject novel ideas early in the course of discussion. How those groups deal with the tension between novelty and the predictability of idea usefulness in the process of overcoming a bias against novelty is therefore an important question for understanding organizational creativity and innovation. We explore that question with a qualitative study of the discussions of four healthcare policy groups who confronted the tension early in the process of evaluating ideas. Unlike prior work that emphasizes how groups integrate tensions to build consensus around ideas, our study showed that overcoming a bias against novelty involved maintaining tension by fracturing a group’s shared understanding of usefulness and retaining those divergent perspectives alongside moments of consensus. We describe this as a diverging consensus model of overcoming a bias against novelty. Our work contributes to the literature examining how groups can productively engage with tensions and provides a dynamic process for how groups might overcome the bias against novelty and therefore keep some novel ideas alive to fuel organizational creativity and innovation.	0.1119522
t_24	Berg, J. M. (2016). Balancing on the creative highwire: Forecasting the success of novel ideas in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 61(3), 433-468.	Betting on the most promising new ideas is key to creativity and innovation in organizations, but predicting the success of novel ideas can be difficult. To select the best ideas, creators and managers must excel at creative forecasting, the skill of predicting the outcomes of new ideas. Using both a field study of 339 professionals in the circus arts industry and a lab experiment, I examine the conditions for accurate creative forecasting, focusing on the effect of creators’ and managers’ roles. In the field study, creators and managers forecasted the success of new circus acts with audiences, and the accuracy of these forecasts was assessed using data from 13,248 audience members. Results suggest that creators were more accurate than managers when forecasting about others’ novel ideas, but not their own. This advantage over managers was undermined when creators previously had poor ideas that were successful in the marketplace anyway. Results from the lab experiment show that creators’ advantage over managers in predicting success may be tied to the emphasis on both divergent thinking (idea generation) and convergent thinking (idea evaluation) in the creator role, while the manager role emphasizes only convergent thinking. These studies highlight that creative forecasting is a critical bridge linking creativity and innovation, shed light on the importance of roles in creative forecasting, and advance theory on why creative success is difficult to sustain over time.	0.1056680
t_25	Tasselli, S., Kilduff, M., & Menges, J. I. (2015). The microfoundations of organizational social networks: A review and an agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 41(5), 1361-1387.	This paper focuses on an emergent debate about the microfoundations of organizational social networks. We consider three theoretical positions: an individual agency perspective suggesting that people, through their individual characteristics and cognitions, shape networks; a network patterning perspective suggesting that networks, through their structural configuration, form people; and a coevolution perspective suggesting that people, in their idiosyncrasies, and networks, in their differentiated structures, coevolve. We conclude that individual attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes cannot be fully understood without considering the structuring of organizational contexts in which people are embedded, and that social network structuring and change in organizations cannot be fully understood without considering the psychology of purposive individuals. To guide future research, we identify key questions from each of the three theoretical perspectives and, particularly, encourage more research on how individual actions and network structure coevolve in a dynamic process of reciprocal influence.	0.5994012
t_26	Hofstra, B., Kulkarni, V. V., Galvez, S. M. N., He, B., Jurafsky, D., & McFarland, D. A. (2020). The diversity–innovation paradox in science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(17), 9284-9291.	Prior work finds a diversity paradox: Diversity breeds innovation, yet underrepresented groups that diversify organizations have less successful careers within them. Does the diversity paradox hold for scientists as well? We study this by utilizing a near-complete population of ~1.2 million US doctoral recipients from 1977 to 2015 and following their careers into publishing and faculty positions. We use text analysis and machine learning to answer a series of questions: How do we detect scientific innovations? Are underrepresented groups more likely to generate scientific innovations? And are the innovations of underrepresented groups adopted and rewarded? Our analyses show that underrepresented groups produce higher rates of scientific novelty. However, their novel contributions are devalued and discounted: For example, novel contributions by gender and racial minorities are taken up by other scholars at lower rates than novel contributions by gender and racial majorities, and equally impactful contributions of gender and racial minorities are less likely to result in successful scientific careers than for majority groups. These results suggest there may be unwarranted reproduction of stratification in academic careers that discounts diversity’s role in innovation and partly explains the underrepresentation of some groups in academia.	0.6990431
t_27	Mannucci, P. V., & Perry-Smith, J. E. (2021). “Who are you going to call?” Network activation in creative idea generation and elaboration. Academy of Management Journal, (ja).	Considering creativity as a journey beyond idea generation, scholars have theorized that different ties are beneficial in different phases. As individuals usually possess different types of ties, selecting the optimal ties in each phase and changing ties as needed are central activities for creative success. We identify the types of ties (weak or strong) that are helpful in idea generation and idea elaboration, and given this understanding, whether individuals activate ties in each phase accordingly. In an experimental study of individuals conversing with their ties, we provide evidence of the causal effects of weak and strong ties on idea generation and idea elaboration. We also find that individuals do not always activate ties optimally and identify network size and risk as barriers. Our results in a series of studies reveal that individuals with large networks, despite providing more opportunity to activate both strong and weak ties, activate fewer weak ties and are less likely to switch ties across phases than individuals with smaller networks, particularly when creativity is perceived as a high-risk endeavor. Finally, we find that activating the wrong ties leads to either dropping creative ideas or pursuing uncreative ones.	0.4616438
t_27	Centola, D., & Macy, M. (2007). Complex contagions and the weakness of long ties. American journal of Sociology, 113(3), 702-734.	The strength of weak ties is that they tend to be long—they connect socially distant locations, allowing information to diffuse rapidly. The authors test whether this “strength of weak ties” generalizes from simple to complex contagions. Complex contagions require social affirmation from multiple sources. Examples include the spread of high-risk social movements, avant garde fashions, and unproven technologies. Results show that as adoption thresholds increase, long ties can impede diffusion. Complex contagions depend primarily on the width of the bridges across a network, not just their length. Wide bridges are a characteristic feature of many spatial networks, which may account in part for the widely observed tendency for social movements to diffuse spatially.	0.2686275
t_28	Smith, E. B. (2011). Identities as lenses: How organizational identity affects audiences' evaluation of organizational performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 56(1), 61-94.	This study calls into question the completeness of the argument that economic actors who fail to conform to certain identity-based logics—such as the categorical structure of markets—garner less attention and perform poorly, beginning with the observation that some nonconforming actors seem to elicit considerable attention and thrive. By reconceptualizing organizational identity as not just a signal of organizational legitimacy but also a lens used by evaluating audiences to make sense of emerging information, I explore the micro, decision-making foundations on which both conformist and nonconformist organizations may come to be favored. Analyzing the association between organizational conformity and return on investment and capital flows in the global hedge fund industry, 1994-2008, I find that investors allocate capital more readily to nonconforming hedge funds following periods of short-term positive performance. Contrary to prediction, nonconforming funds are also less severely penalized for recent poor performance. Both “amplification” and “buffering” effects persist for funds with nonconformist identities despite steady-state normative pressure toward conformity. I explore the asymmetry of this outcome, and what it means for theories related to organizational identity and legitimacy, in the discussion section.	0.5255708
t_29	Askin, N., & Mauskapf, M. (2017). What makes popular culture popular? Product features and optimal differentiation in music. American Sociological Review, 82(5), 910-944.	In this article, we propose a new explanation for why certain cultural products outperform their peers to achieve widespread success. We argue that products’ position in feature space significantly predicts their popular success. Using tools from computer science, we construct a novel dataset allowing us to examine whether the musical features of nearly 27,000 songs from Billboard’s Hot 100 charts predict their levels of success in this cultural market. We find that, in addition to artist familiarity, genre affiliation, and institutional support, a song’s perceived proximity to its peers influences its position on the charts. Contrary to the claim that all popular music sounds the same, we find that songs sounding too much like previous and contemporaneous productions—those that are highly typical—are less likely to succeed. Songs exhibiting some degree of optimal differentiation are more likely to rise to the top of the charts. These findings offer a new perspective on success in cultural markets by specifying how content organizes product competition and audience consumption behavior.	0.3939891
t_29	Younkin, P., & Kashkooli, K. (2020). Stay true to your roots? Category distance, hierarchy, and the performance of new entrants in the music industry. Organization Science, 31(3), 604-627.	New entrants in established markets face competing recommendations over whether it is better to establish their legitimacy by conforming to type or to differentiate themselves from incumbents by proposing novel contributions. This dilemma is particularly acute in cultural markets in which demand for novelty and attention to legitimacy are both high. We draw upon research in organizational theory and entrepreneurship to hypothesize the effects of pursuing narrow or broad appeals on the performance of new entrants in the music industry. We propose that the sales of novel products vary with the distance perceived between the classes being combined and that this happens, in part, because combinations that appear to span great distances encourage consumers to adopt superordinate rather than subordinate classes (e.g., to classify and evaluate something as a “song” rather than a “country song”). Using a sample of 144 artists introduced to the public via the U.S. television program The Voice, we find evidence of a U-shaped relationship between category distance and consumer response. Specifically, consumers reward new entrants who pursue either familiarity (i.e., nonspanning) or distinctive combinations (i.e., combine distant genres) but reject efforts that try to balance both goals. An experimental test validates that manipulating the perceived distance an artist spans influences individual evaluations of product quality and the hierarchy of categorization. Together these results provide initial evidence that distant combinations are more likely to be classified using a superordinate category, mitigating the potential confusion and legitimacy-based penalties that affect middle-distance combinations.	0.1211321
t_30	Wu, L., & Kane, G. C. (2021). Network-Biased Technical Change: How Modern Digital Collaboration Tools Overcome Some Biases but Exacerbate Others. Organization Science, 32(2), 273-292.	Using three years’ data from more than 1,000 employees at a large professional services firm, we find that adopting an expertise search tool improves employee work performance in billable revenue, which results from improvements in network connections and information diversity. More importantly, we also find that adoption does not benefit all employees equally. Two types of employees benefit more from adoption of digital collaboration tools than others. First, junior employees and women benefit more from the adoption of digital collaboration tools than do senior employees and men, respectively. These tools help employees overcome the institutional barriers to resource access faced by these employees in their searches for expertise. Second, employees with greater social capital at the time of adoption also benefit more than others. The tools eliminate natural barriers associated with traditional offline interpersonal networks, enabling employees to network even more strategically than before. We explore the mechanisms for these differential benefits. Digital collaboration tools increase the volume of communication more for junior employees and women, indicating greater access to knowledge and expertise than they had before adoption. The tools also decrease the volume of communication for people with greater social capital, indicating more efficient access to knowledge and expertise. An important implication of our findings is that digital collaboration tools have the potential to overcome some of the demographic institutional biases that organizations have long sought to change. It does so, however, at the expense of potentially creating new biases toward network-based features—a characteristic we call “network-biased technical change.”	0.6880702
t_31	Ertug, G., Gargiulo, M., Galunic, C., & Zou, T. (2018). Homophily and individual performance. Organization Science, 29(5), 912-930.	We study the relationship between choice homophily in instrumental relationships and individual performance in knowledge-intensive organizations. Although homophily should make it easier for people to get access to some colleagues, it may also lead to neglecting relationships with other colleagues, reducing the diversity of information people access through their network. Using data on instrumental ties between bonus-eligible employees in the equity sales and trading division of a global investment bank, we show that the relationship between an employee’s choice of similar colleagues and the employee’s performance is contingent on the position this employee occupies in the formal and informal hierarchy of the bank. More specifically, homophily is negatively associated with performance for bankers in the higher levels of the formal and informal hierarchy whereas the association is either positive or nonexistent for lower hierarchical levels.	0.3425806
t_31	Milanov, H., Justo, R., & Bradley, S. W. (2015). Making the most of group relationships: The role of gender and boundary effects in microcredit groups. Journal of Business Venturing, 30(6), 822-838.	Relationships and networks are important for a range of entrepreneurial outcomes. However, gender scholars' efforts to compare networks across genders rarely extend to provide empirical evidence for the link between networks and performance. Building on expectation states theory and network perspectives, we examine between- and within-gender differences in the network size–performance relationship, highlighting the conditions under which some females leverage their relationships for firm performance better than others. Using data collected from microcredit entrepreneurs in Kenya, we find that the number of within-group ties positively influences firm performance but more positively for male entrepreneurs. For female entrepreneurs, this relationship is contingent on both their individual and their group's characteristics. We discuss implications and future research directions for the gender, networks, and microcredit literatures.	0.2228758
t_31	Baer, M. (2012). Putting creativity to work: The implementation of creative ideas in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 55(5), 1102-1119.	The production of creative ideas does not necessarily imply their implementation. This study examines the possibility that the relation between creativity and implementation is regulated by individuals' motivation to put their ideas into practice and their ability to network, or, alternatively, the number of strong relationships they maintain. Using data from 216 employees and their supervisors, results indicated that individuals were able to improve the otherwise negative odds of their creative ideas being realized when they expected positive outcomes to be associated with their implementation efforts and when they were skilled networkers or had developed a set of strong “buy-in” relationships.	0.1533333
t_31	Keum, D. D., & See, K. E. (2017). The influence of hierarchy on idea generation and selection in the innovation process. Organization Science, 28(4), 653-669.	The link between organizational structure and innovation has been a longstanding interest of organizational scholars, yet the exact nature of the relationship has not been clearly established. Drawing on the behavioral theory of the firm, we take a process view and examine how hierarchy of authority—a fundamental element of organizational structure reflecting degree of managerial oversight—differentially influences behavior and performance in the idea generation versus idea selection phases of the innovation process. Using a multimethod approach that includes a field study and a lab experiment, we find that hierarchy of authority is detrimental to the idea generation phase of innovation, but that hierarchy can be beneficial during the screening or selection phase of innovation. We also identify a behavioral mechanism underlying the effect of hierarchy of authority on selection performance and propose that selection is a critical organizational capability that can be strategically developed and managed through organizational design. Our investigation helps clarify the theoretical relationship between structure and innovation performance and demonstrates the behavioral and economic consequences of organizational design choice.	0.1060302
t_32	Calic, G., El Shamy, N., Kinley, I., Watter, S., & Hassanein, K. (2020). Subjective semantic surprise resulting from divided attention biases evaluations of an idea’s creativity. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-12.	The evaluation of an idea’s creativity constitutes an important step in successfully responding to an unexpected problem with a new solution. Yet, distractions compete for cognitive resources with the evaluation process and may change how individuals evaluate ideas. In this paper, we investigate whether attentional demands from these distractions bias creativity evaluations. This question is examined using 1,065 creativity evaluations of 15 alternative uses of everyday objects by 71 study participants. Participants in the distraction group (Treatment) rated the alternative uses as more creative on the novelty dimension, but not the usefulness dimension, than did participants in the baseline group (Control). Psychophysiological measurements—event-related and spectral EEG and pupillometry—confirm attentional resources in the Treatment group are being diverted to a distractor task and that the Control group expended significantly more cognitive resources on the evaluation of the alternative uses. These data show direct physiological evidence that distractor tasks draw cognitive resources from creative evaluation and that such distractions will bias judgements of creativity.	0.6170984
t_33	McDonald, S., & Elder Jr, G. H. (2006). When does social capital matter? Non-searching for jobs across the life course. Social Forces, 85(1), 521-549.	Non-searchers - people who get their jobs without engaging in a job search - are often excluded from investigations of the role of personal relationships in job finding processes. This practice fails to capture the scope of informal job matching activity and underestimates the effectiveness of social capital. Moreover, studies typically obtain average estimates of social capital effectiveness across broad age ranges, obscuring variation across the life course. Analysis of early career and mid-career job matching shows that non-searching is associated with significant advantages over formal job searching. However, these benefits accrue only during mid-career and primarily among highly experienced male non-searchers. The results highlight the need to examine life course variations in social capital effectiveness and the role of non-searching as an important informal mechanism in the maintenance of gender inequality.	0.4676647
t_33	Tian, F. F., & Liu, X. (2018). Gendered double embeddedness: Finding jobs through networks in the Chinese labor market. Social Networks, 52, 28-36.	Inspired by the concept of “double embeddedness,” we argue that the gender gap in network-based job searching depends on the degree of legitimacy of gender status beliefs across institutional contexts. Analyses from the 2008 Chinese General Social Survey show that the gender gap in network-based job searching is larger in the market sector than in the state sector, as the gender status beliefs are more legitimate in the former than in the latter. Additionally, the sector difference of the gender gap in network-based job searching is significant when the resources channeled through networks are information-related, but it is insignificant when the network resources are influence-related. These findings indicate that job searching is double embedded in social networks and in cultural institutions.	0.2591837
t_33	Hasan, S. (2019). Social networks and careers. In Social networks at work (pp. 228-250). Routledge.	People rely on their informal networks—of friends, acquaintances, and relatives— throughout their careers. A person’s network helps them find a job, win a promotion, or become an entrepreneur. Thousands of articles across many disciplines explore this network–career link with the intention of understanding which features of networks are most important for a given career decision or milestone (see, for example, Burt, 1992; Lin, 1999; Seibert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001). This literature has provided insight not only about how careers unfold, but also about fundamental aspects of human behavior, organizations, and labor markets. In this chapter, I review this prodigious literature and provide an analysis of the central concerns animating scholarship on this topic.	0.1528000
t_34	Zhou, J., Wang, X. M., Bavato, D., Tasselli, S., & Wu, J. (2019). Understanding the receiving side of creativity: A multidisciplinary review and implications for management research. Journal of Management, 45(6), 2570-2595.	Understanding the receiving side of creativity has both scientific and practical value. Creativity can add value to organizations after it is perceived, evaluated, and eventually adopted. In this paper, we review four decades of empirical research on the receiving side of creativity scattered across several business and social science fields. A comprehensive framework surfaces out of our review, indicating four groups of factors affecting the evaluation and adoption of creativity, namely, characteristics of target, creator, perceiver, and context. Although the receiving side of creativity has received far less attention than the generative side in management literature, vibrant research efforts in other scientific fields have built a solid foundation to understand creativity receiving in the workplace. We call for more studies on this important topic and discuss how future research could contribute to its development by advancing conceptual clarity, methodological precision, and integration between theories, disciplines, and different sides of the creative process.	0.4520000
t_34	Godart, F., Seong, S., & Phillips, D. J. (2020). The sociology of creativity: Elements, structures, and audiences. Annual Review of Sociology, 46, 489-510.	This review integrates diverse characterizations of creativity from a sociological perspective with the goal of reinvigorating discussion of the sociology of creativity. We start by exploring relevant works of classical social theory to uncover key assumptions and principles, which are used as a theoretical basis for our proposed definition of creativity: an intentional configuration of cultural and material elements that is unexpected for a given audience. Our argument is enriched by locating creativity vis-à-vis related concepts-such as originality, knowledge, innovation, atypicality, and consecration-and across neighboring disciplines. Underlying the discussion are antecedents (structure, institutions, and context) and consequences (audiences, perception, and evaluation), which are treated separately. We end our review by speculating on ways in which sociologists can take the discussion of creativity forward.	0.2489933
t_35	Konrad, A. M., Radcliffe, V., & Shin, D. (2016). Participation in helping networks as social capital mobilization: Impact on influence for domestic men, domestic women, and international MBA students. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 15(1), 60-78.	This study examines participation in helping networks among MBA students and its impact on subsequent ratings of influence by peers. Helping networks reflect the mobilization of social capital where network contacts exchange social and material resources. As such, helping networks are distinct from friendship networks, which represent access to social capital but not necessarily its use. We identify three dimensions of social capital mobilization with different effects on status, specifically, mutual helping, nonmutual help giving, and nonmutual help receiving. Findings indicate that social capital mobilization through nonmutual help giving is a positive predictor of influence among peers at a later point in time. Nonmutual help receiving and mutual helping are unrelated to influence when nonmutual help giving is controlled. Gender moderates this relationship, but international student status does not. Nonmutual help giving does not enhance the perceived influence of women, particularly among domestic men. These findings support theories of status devaluation for marginalized groups and have implications for the value of the MBA for female students relative to their male peers. Future research on the predictors and outcomes of social capital mobilization can enhance understanding of the organizational experiences of diverse identity groups.	0.5458874
t_36	Ranganathan, A., & Pedulla, D. S. (2021). Work-Family Programs and Nonwork Networks: Within-Group Inequality, Network Activation, and Labor Market Attachment. Organization Science, 32(2), 315-333.	Organizations increasingly offer work-family programs to assist employees with balancing the competing demands of work and family life. Existing scholarship indicates that the consequences of work-family programs are heterogeneous across different sociodemographic groups, but limited research examines when and why workers within the same group may benefit differently from such programs. Understanding these differences may illuminate important mechanisms driving the effectiveness of work-family policies. We theorize that one key driver of within-group variation in the effectiveness of work-family programs is the extent to which workers’ nonwork social networks activate resources to support them. Specifically, we argue that workers whose nonwork networks are less likely to activate supportive resources will benefit more from organizational programs. We further posit that the status characteristics of workers’ dependents may shape the activation of resources among nonwork networks. Drawing on novel data from an Indian garment factory and a quasi-experimental research design, we examine how a work-family program, employer-sponsored childcare, affects the daily work attendance of a socio- demographically homogenous group of working mothers. We find that women whose nonwork networks are less likely to activate informal childcare support—specifically, women with daughters—benefit more from employer-sponsored childcare. Supplemental interview data supports our theoretical claims. We conclude by discussing the contributions of our argument to scholarship on work-family policies and social networks.	0.6693950
t_37	Sgourev, S. V. (2013). How Paris gave rise to Cubism (and Picasso): Ambiguity and fragmentation in radical innovation. Organization Science, 24(6), 1601-1617.	In structural analyses of innovation, one substantive question looms large: What makes radical innovation possible if peripheral actors are more likely to originate radical ideas but are poorly positioned to promote them? An inductive study of the rise of Cubism, a revolutionary paradigm that overthrew classic principles of representation in art, results in a model where not only the periphery moves toward the core through collective action, as typically asserted, but the core also moves toward the periphery, becoming more receptive to radical ideas. The fragmentation of the art market in early 20th-century Paris served as the trigger. The proliferation of market niches and growing ambiguity over evaluation standards dramatically reduced the costs of experimentation in the periphery and the ability of the core to suppress radical ideas. A multilevel analysis linking individual creativity, peer networks, and the art field reveals how market developments fostered Spanish Cubist Pablo Picasso’s experiments and facilitated their diffusion in the absence of public support, a coherent movement, and even his active involvement. If past research attests to the importance of framing innovations and mobilizing resources in their support, this study brings attention to shifts in the structure of opportunities to do so.	0.5415584
t_38	Kilduff, M., & Lee, J. W. (2020). The integration of people and networks. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 7, 155-179.	Social networks involve ties (and their absence) between people in social settings such as organizations. Yet much social network research, given its roots in sociology, ignores the individuality of people in emphasizing the constraints of the structural positions that people occupy. A recent movement to bring people back into social network research draws on the rich history of social psychological research to show that (a) personality (i.e., self-monitoring) is key to understanding individuals’ occupation of social network positions, (b) individuals’ perceptions of social networks relate to important outcomes, and (c) relational energy is transmitted through social network connections. Research at different levels of analysis includes the network around the individual (the ego network), dyadic ties, triadic structures, and whole networks of interacting individuals. We call for future research concerning personality and structure, social network change, perceptions of networks, and cross-cultural differences in how social network connections are understood.	0.2025907
t_38	Lee, E., Karimi, F., Wagner, C., Jo, H. H., Strohmaier, M., & Galesic, M. (2019). Homophily and minority-group size explain perception biases in social networks. Nature human behaviour, 3(10), 1078-1087.	People’s perceptions about the size of minority groups in social networks can be biased, often showing systematic over- or underestimation. These social perception biases are often attributed to biased cognitive or motivational processes. Here we show that both over- and underestimation of the size of a minority group can emerge solely from structural properties of social networks. Using a generative network model, we show that these biases depend on the level of homophily, its asymmetric nature and on the size of the minority group. Our model predictions correspond well with empirical data from a cross-cultural survey and with numerical calculations from six real-world networks. We also identify circumstances under which individuals can reduce their biases by relying on perceptions of their neighbours. This work advances our understanding of the impact of network structure on social perception biases and offers a quantitative approach for addressing related issues in society.	0.1721893
t_38	Tasselli, S., Kilduff, M., & Menges, J. I. (2015). The microfoundations of organizational social networks: A review and an agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 41(5), 1361-1387.	This paper focuses on an emergent debate about the microfoundations of organizational social networks. We consider three theoretical positions: an individual agency perspective suggesting that people, through their individual characteristics and cognitions, shape networks; a network patterning perspective suggesting that networks, through their structural configuration, form people; and a coevolution perspective suggesting that people, in their idiosyncrasies, and networks, in their differentiated structures, coevolve. We conclude that individual attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes cannot be fully understood without considering the structuring of organizational contexts in which people are embedded, and that social network structuring and change in organizations cannot be fully understood without considering the psychology of purposive individuals. To guide future research, we identify key questions from each of the three theoretical perspectives and, particularly, encourage more research on how individual actions and network structure coevolve in a dynamic process of reciprocal influence.	0.1263473
t_38	Godart, F., Seong, S., & Phillips, D. J. (2020). The sociology of creativity: Elements, structures, and audiences. Annual Review of Sociology, 46, 489-510.	This review integrates diverse characterizations of creativity from a sociological perspective with the goal of reinvigorating discussion of the sociology of creativity. We start by exploring relevant works of classical social theory to uncover key assumptions and principles, which are used as a theoretical basis for our proposed definition of creativity: an intentional configuration of cultural and material elements that is unexpected for a given audience. Our argument is enriched by locating creativity vis-à-vis related concepts-such as originality, knowledge, innovation, atypicality, and consecration-and across neighboring disciplines. Underlying the discussion are antecedents (structure, institutions, and context) and consequences (audiences, perception, and evaluation), which are treated separately. We end our review by speculating on ways in which sociologists can take the discussion of creativity forward.	0.1013423
t_39	Venkatesh, V., Shaw, J. D., Sykes, T. A., Wamba, S. F., & Macharia, M. (2017). Networks, technology, and entrepreneurship: a field quasi-experiment among women in rural India. Academy of Management Journal, 60(5), 1709-1740.	We address a grand economic challenge faced by women in rural India. We consider the interplay of women’s social networks (ties to family, to community, and to men in power), information and communication technology (ICT) use, and time in relating to the initiation and success of women’s entrepreneurial ventures. Results from a seven- year field quasi-experiment in 20 rural villages in India support the model. Ties to family and community positively, and to men in power negatively, relate to ICT use, entrepreneurial activity, and entrepreneurial profit. ICT intervention also strongly impacts entrepreneurship, with 160 new businesses in the 10 intervention villages com- pared to 40 in the controls. Results also demonstrate the dynamic interplay of social networks and ICT use. For ties to family and community, the amplification effect is such that the highest levels of entrepreneurial activity and success are observed among women with high centrality and ICT use—effects that increase over time. For ties to men in power, ICT use is associated with increased entrepreneurial activity only when these ties are low, but these interactive temporary temporal patterns do not emerge for profit. We address implications for the grand challenges of empowering women in less developed countries.	0.6612335
t_40	Hargadon, A. B., & Douglas, Y. (2001). When innovations meet institutions: Edison and the design of the electric light. Administrative science quarterly, 46(3), 476-501.	This paper considers the role of design, as the emergent arrangement of concrete details that embodies a new idea, in mediating between innovations and established institutional fields as entrepreneurs attempt to introduce change. Analysis of Thomas Edison's system of electric lighting offers insights into how the grounded details of an innovation's design shape its acceptance and ultimate impact. The notion of robust design is introduced to explain how Edison's design strategy enabled his organization to gain acceptance for an innovation that would ultimately displace the existing institutions of the gas industry. By examining the principles through which design allows entrepreneurs to exploit the established institutions while simultaneously retaining the flexibility to displace them, this analysis highlights the value of robust design strategies in innovation efforts, including the phonograph, the online service provider, and the digital video recorder.	0.5395210
t_41	Perry-Smith, J., & Mannucci, P. V. (2019). From ugly duckling to swan: a social network perspective on novelty recognition and creativity. In Social Networks at Work (pp. 178-199). Routledge.	Given the growing importance of novelty recognition for both theory and practice, this chapter focuses on the emerging stream of research that looks at how social networks affect the ability to recognize novelty, both at the individual and at the field level. Importantly, we emphasize individual creative outcomes rather than team or collective outcomes. We first review the extant literature on net- works and idea generation in order to provide a complete picture of the history of the field. We then review literature that has looked at novelty recognition from a non-network perspective. Next, we present research in social networks relevant to this issue and describe how a social network lens informs novelty recognition from the perspective of both the creator and the field. We conclude with a discussion of ideas for future research on social networks and creativity in general and specific to a social network approach to novelty recognition.	0.3299401
t_41	Cattani, G., Ferriani, S., & Lanza, A. (2017). Deconstructing the outsider puzzle: The legitimation journey of novelty. Organization Science, 28(6), 965-992.	The proposition that outsiders often are crucial carriers of novelty into an established institutional field has received wide empirical support. But an equally compelling proposition points to the following puzzle: the very same conditions that enhance outsiders’ ability to make novel contributions also hinder their ability to carry them out. We seek to address this puzzle by examining the contextual circumstances that affect the legitimation of novelty originating from a noncertified outsider that challenged the status quo in an established institutional field. Our research case material is John Harrison’s introduction of a new mechanical method for measuring longitude at sea—the marine chronometer—which challenged the dominant astronomical approach. We find that whether an outsider’s new offer gains or is denied legitimacy is influenced by (1) the outsider’s agency to further a new offer, (2) the existence of multiple audiences with different dispositions toward this offer, and (3) the occurrence of an exogenous jolt that helps create a more receptive social space. We organize these insights into a multilevel conceptual framework that builds on previous work but attributes a more decisive role to the interplay between endogenous and exogenous variables in shaping a field’s shifting receptiveness to novelty. The framework exposes the interdependencies between the micro-, meso-, and macro-level processes that jointly affect an outsider’s efforts to introduce novelty into an existing field.	0.1704453
t_41	Trapido, D. (2015). How novelty in knowledge earns recognition: The role of consistent identities. Research Policy, 44(8), 1488-1500.	The novelty of scientific or technological knowledge has a paradoxical dual implication. Highly novel ideas are subject to a higher risk of rejection by their evaluating audiences than incremental, “normal science” contributions. Yet the same audiences may deem a contribution to knowledge valuable because it is highly novel. This study develops and tests an explanation of this dual effect. It is argued that the recognition premium that highly acclaimed authors’ work enjoys disproportionately accrues to work that is consistent with the authors’ previously developed identity. Because high novelty is a salient identity marker, authors’ past recognition for highly novel work helps same authors’ new highly novel work earn positive audience valuation. It is further argued that, because recognition for novelty is partly inherited from mentors, disciples of highly acclaimed producers of novel work are more likely to have their work prized for its novelty. In contrast, the authors’ or their mentors’ recognition earned for relatively less novel work does not trigger similar spillover effects and leaves the authors vulnerable to the novelty discount. Unique data on the productivity, career histories, and mentoring relations of academic electrical engineers support these arguments.	0.1328767
t_41	Zhou, J., Wang, X. M., Song, L. J., & Wu, J. (2017). Is it new? Personal and contextual influences on perceptions of novelty and creativity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(2), 180.	Novelty recognition is the crucial starting point for extracting value from the ideas generated by others. In this paper we develop an associative evaluation account for how personal and contextual factors motivate individuals to perceive novelty and creativity. We report 4 studies that systematically tested hypotheses developed from this perspective. Study 1 (a laboratory experiment) showed that perceivers’ regulatory focus, as an experimentally induced state, affected novelty perception. Study 2 (a field study) found that perceivers’ promotion focus and prevention focus, measured as chronic traits, each interacted with normative level of novelty and creativity: perceivers who scored higher on promotion focus perceived more novelty (or creativity) in novel (or creative) targets than those who scored lower, whereas perceivers who scored higher on prevention focus perceived less novelty (or creativity) in novel (or creative) targets than those who scored lower. Study 3 (a field study) showed that organizational culture affected the perception of novelty and creativity. Study 4 (a laboratory experiment) found perceiver-by-idea-by-context 3-way interaction effects: for perceivers with prevention focus, the positive relation between normative level of novelty and novelty ratings was weakened in the loss-framing condition versus the gain-framing condition. We discuss implications of the findings for future research and management practice.	0.1296578
t_42	DiMaggio, P., & Garip, F. (2012). Network effects and social inequality. Annual review of sociology, 38, 93-118.	Students of social inequality have noted the presence of mechanisms militating toward cumulative advantage and increasing inequality. Social scientists have established that individuals' choices are influenced by those of their network peers in many social domains. We suggest that the ubiquity of network effects and tendencies toward cumulative advantage are related. Inequality is exacerbated when effects of individual differences are multiplied by social networks: when persons must decide whether to adopt beneficial practices; when network externalities, social learning, or normative pressures influence adoption decisions; and when networks are homophilous with respect to individual characteristics that predict such decisions. We review evidence from literatures on network effects on technology, labor markets, education, demography, and health; identify several mechanisms through which networks may generate higher levels of inequality than one would expect based on differences in initial endowments alone; consider cases in which network effects may ameliorate inequality; and describe research priorities.	0.4176471
t_43	Ugander, J., Backstrom, L., Marlow, C., & Kleinberg, J. (2012). Structural diversity in social contagion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(16), 5962-5966.	The concept of contagion has steadily expanded from its original grounding in epidemic disease to describe a vast array of processes that spread across networks, notably social phenomena such as fads, political opinions, the adoption of new technologies, and financial decisions. Traditional models of social contagion have been based on physical analogies with biological contagion, in which the probability that an individual is affected by the contagion grows monotonically with the size of his or her “contact neighborhood”—the number of affected individuals with whom he or she is in contact. Whereas this contact neighborhood hypothesis has formed the underpinning of essentially all current models, it has been challenging to evaluate it due to the difficulty in obtaining detailed data on individual network neighborhoods during the course of a large-scale contagion process. Here we study this question by analyzing the growth of Facebook, a rare example of a social process with genuinely global adoption. We find that the probability of contagion is tightly controlled by the number of connected components in an individual's contact neighborhood, rather than by the actual size of the neighborhood. Surprisingly, once this “structural diversity” is controlled for, the size of the contact neighborhood is in fact generally a negative predictor of contagion. More broadly, our analysis shows how data at the size and resolution of the Facebook network make possible the identification of subtle structural signals that go undetected at smaller scales yet hold pivotal predictive roles for the outcomes of social processes.	0.6483146
t_44	Yang, Y., Chawla, N. V., & Uzzi, B. (2019). A network’s gender composition and communication pattern predict women’s leadership success. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(6), 2033-2038.	Many leaders today do not rise through the ranks but are recruited directly out of graduate programs into leadership positions. We use a quasi-experiment and instrumental-variable regression to understand the link between students’ graduate school social networks and placement into leadership positions of varying levels of authority. Our data measure students’ personal characteristics and academic performance, as well as their social network information drawn from 4.5 million email correspondences among hundreds of students who were placed directly into leadership positions. After controlling for students’ personal characteristics, work experience, and academic performance, we find that students’ social networks strongly predict placement into leadership positions. For males, the higher a male student’s centrality in the school-wide network, the higher his leadership-job placement will be. Men with network centrality in the top quartile have an expected job placement level that is 1.5 times greater than men in the bottom quartile of centrality. While centrality also predicts women’s placement, high-placing women students have one thing more: an inner circle of predominantly female contacts who are connected to many nonoverlapping third-party contacts. Women with a network centrality in the top quartile and a female-dominated inner circle have an expected job placement level that is 2.5 times greater than women with low centrality and a male-dominated inner circle. Women who have networks that resemble those of high-placing men are low-placing, despite having leadership qualifications comparable to high-placing women.	0.7068259
t_45	Mueller, J., Melwani, S., Loewenstein, J., & Deal, J. J. (2018). Reframing the decision-makers’ dilemma: Towards a social context model of creative idea recognition. Academy of Management Journal, 61(1), 94-110.	Can decision-maker roles—roles with responsibility for allocating resources toward ideas—shape which ideas people in those roles view as creative? Prior theory suggests that expertise should influence creativity assessments, yet examples abound of experts in different roles disagreeing about whether the same idea is creative. We build and test a social context model of creative idea recognition to show how decision-maker roles can shift creativity assessments. In an experimental study, we show that relative to non-decision-making roles, decision-making roles inculcate an economic mindset and so lead to downgrading otherwise creative ideas with cues of low social approval. A quasi-experimental study triangulates and extends this finding showing that organizational decision-making roles can habitually evoke an economic mindset that shapes creativity assessments. In both studies, decision-maker role, economic mindset, and social approval levels were unrelated to idea usefulness ratings. By integrating work on organizational roles, economic mindsets, and implicit theories of creative ideas, we provide a broadly applicable theoretical framework to describe how social context shapes creativity assessments. This work has important implications for the creativity and innovation literatures, and suggests a new interpretation of the longstanding puzzle of why organizations desire but often reject creative ideas.	0.4501859
t_45	Mount, M. P., Baer, M., & Lupoli, M. J. (2021). Quantum leaps or baby steps? Expertise distance, construal level, and the propensity to invest in novel technological ideas. Strategic Management Journal.	Deliberate cognition is an important mechanism for overcoming inertia. Yet, the precise nature of cognition that propels decision-makers to endorse novelty is not well understood. We propose that expertise distance is a fundamental force shaping decision-makers' willingness to invest in novelty. We further suggest that the level of mental construal through which information is processed moderates the effect of expertise distance on investment propensity, principally by changing decision-makers' perceptions of an idea's novelty and usefulness. We test our theory in two studies. Study 1 is a field study of 120 decision-makers considering a novel technological idea—quantum key distribution. Study 2 is an experiment that conceptually replicates our first study. Our findings contribute to the debate on strategic cognition and the microfoundations of strategic adaptation.	0.2751634
t_46	Mueller, J. S., Wakslak, C. J., & Krishnan, V. (2014). Construing creativity: The how and why of recognizing creative ideas. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 51, 81-87.	While prior theory proposes that domain knowledge is the main factor that determines creativity assessments, we provide theory and evidence to suggest that situational factors can also alter what people view as creative. Specifically, we test the notion that one's current construal-level can shift what people perceive as creative. We employ three studies manipulating construal in two ways (i.e., with spatial distance and construal level mindset priming) to show that people with low-level and high-level construal orientations differ in creativity assessments of the same idea. We further show that low- and high-level construals do not alter perceptions of ideas low in creativity, and that uncertainty sometimes mediates the relationship between construal level priming and creativity assessments of an examined idea. These findings shed light on why people desire but often reject creativity, and suggest practical solutions to help organizations (e.g., journals, government agencies, venture capitalists) spot creative ideas.	0.5345550
t_47	Sgourev, S. V., & Althuizen, N. (2014). “Notable” or “Not Able” when are acts of inconsistency rewarded?. American Sociological Review, 79(2), 282-302.	Atypical practices of crossing categories or genres are generally discouraged in the market, but the ideal of the Renaissance mind persists. Building on recent work elaborating the need to reward the greater risk associated with atypicality for it to survive, this article provides the first systematic, direct evidence for such a reward. We focus on stylistic inconsistency—mixing distinct artistic styles. In a between-subject experimental design, 183 subjects estimated the aesthetic and market value of consistent and inconsistent sets of artworks by Pablo Picasso in three status conditions. Controlling for cognitive difficulties posed by inconsistency, we show that inconsistency is rewarded (i.e., evaluated higher than consistency on aesthetic value) only at high status. Status cues guide perception so that inconsistent works by a prominent artist are given the benefit of the doubt and interpreted as a sign of creativity. The association with creativity leads to a reward for atypicality in the absence of tangible proof that it performs better than typicality.	0.6580110
t_48	Harvey, S., & Mueller, J. S. (2021). Staying Alive: Toward a Diverging Consensus Model of Overcoming a Bias Against Novelty in Groups. Organization Science, 32(2), 293-314.	Organizations that desire creativity often use groups like task forces, decision panels, and selection committees with the primary purpose of evaluating novel ideas. Those groups need to keep at least some novel ideas alive while also assessing the usefulness of ideas. Research suggests, however, that such groups often prefer proven ideas whose usefulness can be easily predicted and reject novel ideas early in the course of discussion. How those groups deal with the tension between novelty and the predictability of idea usefulness in the process of overcoming a bias against novelty is therefore an important question for understanding organizational creativity and innovation. We explore that question with a qualitative study of the discussions of four healthcare policy groups who confronted the tension early in the process of evaluating ideas. Unlike prior work that emphasizes how groups integrate tensions to build consensus around ideas, our study showed that overcoming a bias against novelty involved maintaining tension by fracturing a group’s shared understanding of usefulness and retaining those divergent perspectives alongside moments of consensus. We describe this as a diverging consensus model of overcoming a bias against novelty. Our work contributes to the literature examining how groups can productively engage with tensions and provides a dynamic process for how groups might overcome the bias against novelty and therefore keep some novel ideas alive to fuel organizational creativity and innovation.	0.5980080
t_48	Calic, G., El Shamy, N., Kinley, I., Watter, S., & Hassanein, K. (2020). Subjective semantic surprise resulting from divided attention biases evaluations of an idea’s creativity. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-12.	The evaluation of an idea’s creativity constitutes an important step in successfully responding to an unexpected problem with a new solution. Yet, distractions compete for cognitive resources with the evaluation process and may change how individuals evaluate ideas. In this paper, we investigate whether attentional demands from these distractions bias creativity evaluations. This question is examined using 1,065 creativity evaluations of 15 alternative uses of everyday objects by 71 study participants. Participants in the distraction group (Treatment) rated the alternative uses as more creative on the novelty dimension, but not the usefulness dimension, than did participants in the baseline group (Control). Psychophysiological measurements—event-related and spectral EEG and pupillometry—confirm attentional resources in the Treatment group are being diverted to a distractor task and that the Control group expended significantly more cognitive resources on the evaluation of the alternative uses. These data show direct physiological evidence that distractor tasks draw cognitive resources from creative evaluation and that such distractions will bias judgements of creativity.	0.1041451
t_49	Proudfoot, D., Kay, A. C., & Koval, C. Z. (2015). A gender bias in the attribution of creativity: Archival and experimental evidence for the perceived association between masculinity and creative thinking. Psychological science, 26(11), 1751-1761.	We propose that the propensity to think creatively tends to be associated with independence and self-direction—qualities generally ascribed to men—so that men are often perceived to be more creative than women. In two experiments, we found that “outside the box” creativity is more strongly associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics (e.g., daring and self-reliance) than with stereotypically feminine characteristics (e.g., cooperativeness and supportiveness; Study 1) and that a man is ascribed more creativity than a woman when they produce identical output (Study 2). Analyzing archival data, we found that men’s ideas are evaluated as more ingenious than women’s ideas (Study 3) and that female executives are stereotyped as less innovative than their male counterparts when evaluated by their supervisors (Study 4). Finally, we observed that stereotypically masculine behavior enhances a man’s perceived creativity, whereas identical behavior does not enhance a woman’s perceived creativity (Study 5). This boost in men’s perceived creativity is mediated by attributions of agency, not competence, and predicts perceptions of reward deservingness.	0.5142077
t_49	Proudfoot, D., & Fath, S. (2021). Signaling creative genius: How perceived social connectedness influences judgments of creative potential. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 47(4), 580-592.	In today’s knowledge economy, effectively signaling one’s creative potential can be advantageous. Five experiments demonstrate that cues signaling a person’s separateness from others (as opposed to social connectedness) boost evaluations of their creative potential. “Lone” targets—engaging in activities alone—were judged more likely to generate creative ideas compared with targets engaging in identical activities with others. This effect was explained by perceived social independence and was unique to creativity judgments—our manipulation did not influence perceptions of other positive attributes, including ability to generate practical ideas (Studies 1a and 1b). The effect of social independence on perceived creativity was not reducible to perceived nonnormativity and was attenuated when creativity was construed as requiring convergent thinking rather than divergent thinking (Studies 2–4). Findings advance our understanding of how individuals of varying degrees of social connectedness tend to be viewed by others, providing insight into observers’ lay beliefs about creative potential.	0.1972678
t_50	Younkin, P., & Kashkooli, K. (2020). Stay true to your roots? Category distance, hierarchy, and the performance of new entrants in the music industry. Organization Science, 31(3), 604-627.	New entrants in established markets face competing recommendations over whether it is better to establish their legitimacy by conforming to type or to differentiate themselves from incumbents by proposing novel contributions. This dilemma is particularly acute in cultural markets in which demand for novelty and attention to legitimacy are both high. We draw upon research in organizational theory and entrepreneurship to hypothesize the effects of pursuing narrow or broad appeals on the performance of new entrants in the music industry. We propose that the sales of novel products vary with the distance perceived between the classes being combined and that this happens, in part, because combinations that appear to span great distances encourage consumers to adopt superordinate rather than subordinate classes (e.g., to classify and evaluate something as a “song” rather than a “country song”). Using a sample of 144 artists introduced to the public via the U.S. television program The Voice, we find evidence of a U-shaped relationship between category distance and consumer response. Specifically, consumers reward new entrants who pursue either familiarity (i.e., nonspanning) or distinctive combinations (i.e., combine distant genres) but reject efforts that try to balance both goals. An experimental test validates that manipulating the perceived distance an artist spans influences individual evaluations of product quality and the hierarchy of categorization. Together these results provide initial evidence that distant combinations are more likely to be classified using a superordinate category, mitigating the potential confusion and legitimacy-based penalties that affect middle-distance combinations.	0.4418868
t_51	Zhu, Y., Ritter, S. M., Müller, B. C., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2017). Creativity: Intuitive processing outperforms deliberative processing in creative idea selection. Journal of experimental social psychology, 73, 180-188.	Creative ideas are highly valued, and various techniques have been designed to maximize the generation of creative ideas. However, for actual implementation of creative ideas, the most creative ideas must be recognized and selected from a pool of ideas. Although idea generation and idea selection are tightly linked in creativity theories, research on idea selection lags far behind research on idea generation. The current research investigates the role of processing mode in creative idea selection. In two experiments, participants were either instructed to intuitively or deliberatively select the most creative ideas from a pool of 18 ideas that systematically vary on creativity and its sub-dimensions originality and usefulness. Participants in the intuitive condition selected ideas that were more creative, more original, and equally useful than the ideas selected by participants in the deliberative condition. Moreover, whereas selection performance of participants in the deliberative condition was not better than chance level, participants in the intuitive condition selected ideas that were more creative, more original, and more useful than the average of all available ideas.	0.8365079
t_52	Garud, R., Tuertscher, P., & Van de Ven, A. H. (2013). Perspectives on innovation processes. Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), 775-819.	Innovation is often thought of as an outcome. In this chapter, we review the literatures on innovation processes pertaining to the invention, development, and implementation of ideas. In particular, we explore how these processes unfold within firms, across multi-party networks, and within communities. Moreover, we identify four different kinds of complexities associated with innovation processes that we label as evolutionary, relational, temporal, and cultural complexities. While one approach is to manage or control such complexities, we draw attention to literatures that suggest that it is far more productive to harness these complexities for sustaining ongoing innovation. We conclude the chapter by highlighting some areas for future research.	0.5230088
t_52	Guilbeault, D., Becker, J., & Centola, D. (2018). Complex contagions: A decade in review. Complex spreading phenomena in social systems, 3-25.	In the last decade, the literature on complex contagions has rapidly evolved both empirically and theoretically. In this review, we discuss recent developments across four empirical domains: health, innovation, social media, and politics. Each domain adds new complexities to our understanding of how contagions emerge, spread, and evolve, as well as how they undergird fundamental social processes. We also discuss how these empirical studies have spurred complementary advancements in the theoretical modeling of contagions, which concern the effects of network topology on diffusion, as well as the effects of variation in threshold dynamics. Importantly, while the empirical studies reviewed in this paper complement existing theoretical work, they also present many opportunities for new theoretical extensions. We suggest three main directions for future development of research on complex contagions. The first concerns the study of how multiple contagions interact within the same network and across networks, in what may be called an ecology of complex contagions. The second concerns the study of how the structure of thresholds and their behavioral consequences can vary by individual and social context. The third area concerns the recent discovery of diversity as a causal variable in diffusion, where diversity can refer either to the diversity of demographic profiles among local peers, or to the broader structural diversity that local peers are situated within. Throughout, we take effort to anticipate the theoretical and empirical challenges that may lie ahead.	0.2554656
t_52	Zhao, E. Y., Fisher, G., Lounsbury, M., & Miller, D. (2017). Optimal distinctiveness: Broadening the interface between institutional theory and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 38(1), 93-113.	Attaining optimal distinctiveness—positive stakeholder perceptions about a firm's strategic position that reconciles competing demands for differentiation and conformity—has been an important focal point for scholarship at the interface of strategic management and institutional theory. We provide a comprehensive review of this literature and situate studies on optimal distinctiveness in the broader scholarly effort to integrate institutional theory into strategic management. Our review finds that much extant research on firm-level optimal distinctiveness is grounded in the strategic balance perspective that conceptualizes conformity and competitive differentiation as a trade-off along a single organizational attribute. We argue for a renewed research agenda that draws on recent developments in institutional theory to conceptualize organizational environments as more multiplex, fragmented, and dynamic, and discuss its implications for core strategic management topics.	0.1130178
t_52	Hasan, S. (2019). Social networks and careers. In Social networks at work (pp. 228-250). Routledge.	People rely on their informal networks—of friends, acquaintances, and relatives— throughout their careers. A person’s network helps them find a job, win a promotion, or become an entrepreneur. Thousands of articles across many disciplines explore this network–career link with the intention of understanding which features of networks are most important for a given career decision or milestone (see, for example, Burt, 1992; Lin, 1999; Seibert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001). This literature has provided insight not only about how careers unfold, but also about fundamental aspects of human behavior, organizations, and labor markets. In this chapter, I review this prodigious literature and provide an analysis of the central concerns animating scholarship on this topic.	0.1128000
t_53	Tian, F. F., & Liu, X. (2018). Gendered double embeddedness: Finding jobs through networks in the Chinese labor market. Social Networks, 52, 28-36.	Inspired by the concept of “double embeddedness,” we argue that the gender gap in network-based job searching depends on the degree of legitimacy of gender status beliefs across institutional contexts. Analyses from the 2008 Chinese General Social Survey show that the gender gap in network-based job searching is larger in the market sector than in the state sector, as the gender status beliefs are more legitimate in the former than in the latter. Additionally, the sector difference of the gender gap in network-based job searching is significant when the resources channeled through networks are information-related, but it is insignificant when the network resources are influence-related. These findings indicate that job searching is double embedded in social networks and in cultural institutions.	0.1707483
t_53	Garcia, D., Kassa, Y. M., Cuevas, A., Cebrian, M., Moro, E., Rahwan, I., & Cuevas, R. (2018). Analyzing gender inequality through large-scale Facebook advertising data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(27), 6958-6963.	Online social media are information resources that can have a transformative power in society. While the Web was envisioned as an equalizing force that allows everyone to access information, the digital divide prevents large amounts of people from being present online. Online social media, in particular, are prone to gender inequality, an important issue given the link between social media use and employment. Understanding gender inequality in social media is a challenging task due to the necessity of data sources that can provide large-scale measurements across multiple countries. Here, we show how the Facebook Gender Divide (FGD), a metric based on aggregated statistics of more than 1.4 billion users in 217 countries, explains various aspects of worldwide gender inequality. Our analysis shows that the FGD encodes gender equality indices in education, health, and economic opportunity. We find gender differences in network externalities that suggest that using social media has an added value for women. Furthermore, we find that low values of the FGD are associated with increases in economic gender equality. Our results suggest that online social networks, while suffering evident gender imbalance, may lower the barriers that women have to access to informational resources and help to narrow the economic gender gap.	0.1635983
t_53	Vásárhelyi, O., Zakhlebin, I., Milojevic, S., & Horvát, E. Á. (2021). Gender inequities in the online dissemination of scholars’ work. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(39).	Unbiased science dissemination has the potential to alleviate some of the known gender disparities in academia by exposing female scholars’ work to other scientists and the public. And yet, we lack comprehensive understanding of the relationship between gender and science dissemination online. Our large-scale analyses, encompassing half a million scholars, revealed that female scholars’ work is mentioned less frequently than male scholars’ work in all research areas. When exploring the characteristics associated with online success, we found that the impact of prior work, social capital, and gendered tie formation in coauthorship networks are linked with online success for men, but not for women—even in the areas with the highest female representation. These results suggest that while men’s scientific impact and collaboration networks are associated with higher visibility online, there are no universally identifiable facets associated with success for women. Our comprehensive empirical evidence indicates that the gender gap in online science dissemination is coupled with a lack of understanding the characteristics that are linked with female scholars’ success, which might hinder efforts to close the gender gap in visibility.	0.1379147
t_54	Lee, M., & Huang, L. (2018). Gender bias, social impact framing, and evaluation of entrepreneurial ventures. Organization Science, 29(1), 1-16.	Recent studies find that female-led ventures are penalized relative to male-led ventures as a result of role incongruity or a perceived “lack of fit” between female stereotypes and expected personal qualities of business entrepreneurs. We examine whether social impact framing that emphasizes a venture’s social–environmental welfare benefits, which research has shown to elicit stereotypically feminine attributions of warmth, diminishes these penalties. We initially investigate this proposition in a field study of evaluations of early-stage ventures and find evidence of lessened gender penalties for female-led ventures that are presented using a social impact frame. In a second study, we experimentally validate this effect and show that it is mediated by the effect of social impact framing on perceptions of the entrepreneur’s warmth. The effect of social impact frames on venture evaluations did not apply to men, was not a result of perceptions of increased competence, and was not conditional on the gender of evaluators. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that social impact framing increases attributions of warmth for all entrepreneurs but with positive consequences on business evaluation only for female-led ventures, for which increased perceptions of warmth attenuate female entrepreneurs’ gender role incongruity.	0.4818930
t_54	Balachandra, L., Briggs, T., Eddleston, K., & Brush, C. (2019). Don’t pitch like a girl!: How gender stereotypes influence investor decisions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 43(1), 116-137.	We consider the role that gender-stereotyped behaviors play in investors’ evaluations of men- and women-owned ventures. Contrary to research suggesting that investors exhibit bias against women, we find that being a woman entrepreneur does not diminish interest by investors. Rather, our findings reveal that investors are biased against the display of feminine-stereotyped behaviors by entrepreneurs, men and women alike. Our study finds that investor decisions are driven in part by observations of gender-stereotyped behaviors and the implicit associations with the entrepreneur’s business competency, rather than the entrepreneur’s sex.	0.1834783
t_54	Johnson, M. A., Stevenson, R. M., & Letwin, C. R. (2018). A woman's place is in the… startup! Crowdfunder judgments, implicit bias, and the stereotype content model. Journal of Business Venturing, 33(6), 813-831.	We examine investor stereotypes and implicit bias in crowdfunding decisions. Prior research in formal venture capital settings demonstrates that investors tend to have a funding bias against women. However, in crowdfunding – wherein a ‘crowd’ of amateur investors make relatively small investments in new companies – our empirical observations reveal a funding advantage for women. We explain the causal mechanism underlying this counterintuitive finding by drawing upon stereotype content theory and testing a dual path moderated-mediation model. Based on archival data and a follow-up experiment, our findings suggest common gender biases held by amateur investors function to increase female stereotype perceptions in the form of trustworthiness judgments, which subsequently increases investors' willingness to invest in early-stage women-led ventures. We discuss our results with specific attention to how our findings extend the entrepreneurship funding literature as well as the gender dynamics literature in entrepreneurship and organization research more broadly.	0.1646766
t_54	Sarsons, H., Gërxhani, K., Reuben, E., & Schram, A. (2021). Gender differences in recognition for group work. Journal of Political Economy, 129(1), 101-147.	We study whether gender influences credit attribution for group work using observational data and two experiments. We use data from academic economists to test whether coauthorship matters differently for tenure for men and women. We find that, conditional on quality and other observables, men are tenured similarly regardless of whether they coauthor or solo author. Women, however, are less likely to receive tenure the more they coauthor. We then conduct two experiments that demonstrate that biases in credit attribution in settings without confounds exist. Taken together, our results are best explained by gender and stereotypes influencing credit attribution for group work.	0.1070796
t_55	Ibarra, H. (1992). Homophily and differential returns: Sex differences in network structure and access in an advertising firm. Administrative science quarterly, 422-447.	This paper argues that two network mechanisms operate to create and reinforce gender inequalities in the organizational distribution of power: sex differences in homophily (i.e., tendency to form same-sex network relationships) and in the ability to convert individual attributes and positional resources into network advantages. These arguments were tested in a network analytic study of men's and women's interaction patterns in an advertising firm. Men were more likely to form homophilous ties across multiple networks and to have stronger homophilous ties, while women evidenced a differentiated network pattern in which they obtained social support and friendship from women and instrumental access through network ties to men. Although centrality in organization-wide networks did not vary by sex once controls were instituted, relative to women, men appeared to reap greater network returns from similar individual and positional resources, as well as from homophilous relationships.	0.2519553
t_55	McDonald, S. (2011). What's in the “old boys” network? Accessing social capital in gendered and racialized networks. Social networks, 33(4), 317-330.	Network processes have long been implicated in the reproduction of labor market inequality, but it remains unclear whether white male networks provide more social capital resources than female and minority networks. Analysis of nationally representative survey data reveals that people in white male networks receive twice as many job leads as people in female/minority networks. White male networks are also comprised of higher status connections than female/minority networks. The information and status benefits of membership in these old boy networks accrue to all respondents and not just white men. Furthermore, gender homophilous contacts offer greater job finding assistance than other contacts. The results specify how social capital flows through gendered and racialized networks.	0.1941935
t_55	Hasan, S. (2019). Social networks and careers. In Social networks at work (pp. 228-250). Routledge.	People rely on their informal networks—of friends, acquaintances, and relatives— throughout their careers. A person’s network helps them find a job, win a promotion, or become an entrepreneur. Thousands of articles across many disciplines explore this network–career link with the intention of understanding which features of networks are most important for a given career decision or milestone (see, for example, Burt, 1992; Lin, 1999; Seibert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001). This literature has provided insight not only about how careers unfold, but also about fundamental aspects of human behavior, organizations, and labor markets. In this chapter, I review this prodigious literature and provide an analysis of the central concerns animating scholarship on this topic.	0.1768000
t_55	Ibarra, H. (1997). Paving an alternative route: Gender differences in managerial networks. Social psychology quarterly, 91-102.	This research uses the network-analytic concepts of homophily, tie strength, and range to explore gender differences in characteristics of middle managers' information and career support networks. When the effects of position and potential for future advancement were held constant, women's networks were less homophilous than men's. Women high in advancement potential, however, relied to a greater extent than both high-potential men and less high-potential women on close ties and relationships outside their subunits. On the basis of these findings, we suggest that different types of networks may provide alternative routes to similar career resources for men and for women.	0.1188976
t_55	Centola, D., & Macy, M. (2007). Complex contagions and the weakness of long ties. American journal of Sociology, 113(3), 702-734.	The strength of weak ties is that they tend to be long—they connect socially distant locations, allowing information to diffuse rapidly. The authors test whether this “strength of weak ties” generalizes from simple to complex contagions. Complex contagions require social affirmation from multiple sources. Examples include the spread of high-risk social movements, avant garde fashions, and unproven technologies. Results show that as adoption thresholds increase, long ties can impede diffusion. Complex contagions depend primarily on the width of the bridges across a network, not just their length. Wide bridges are a characteristic feature of many spatial networks, which may account in part for the widely observed tendency for social movements to diffuse spatially.	0.1183007
t_56	Guilbeault, D., & Centola, D. (2021). Topological measures for identifying and predicting the spread of complex contagions. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1-9.	The standard measure of distance in social networks – average shortest path length – assumes a model of “simple” contagion, in which people only need exposure to influence from one peer to adopt the contagion. However, many social phenomena are “complex” contagions, for which people need exposure to multiple peers before they adopt. Here, we show that the classical measure of path length fails to define network connectedness and node centrality for complex contagions. Centrality measures and seeding strategies based on the classical definition of path length frequently misidentify the network features that are most effective for spreading complex contagions. To address these issues, we derive measures of complex path length and complex centrality, which significantly improve the capacity to identify the network structures and central individuals best suited for spreading complex contagions. We validate our theory using empirical data on the spread of a microfinance program in 43 rural Indian villages.	0.6903743
t_56	Centola, D., & Macy, M. (2007). Complex contagions and the weakness of long ties. American journal of Sociology, 113(3), 702-734.	The strength of weak ties is that they tend to be long—they connect socially distant locations, allowing information to diffuse rapidly. The authors test whether this “strength of weak ties” generalizes from simple to complex contagions. Complex contagions require social affirmation from multiple sources. Examples include the spread of high-risk social movements, avant garde fashions, and unproven technologies. Results show that as adoption thresholds increase, long ties can impede diffusion. Complex contagions depend primarily on the width of the bridges across a network, not just their length. Wide bridges are a characteristic feature of many spatial networks, which may account in part for the widely observed tendency for social movements to diffuse spatially.	0.2947712
t_56	Guilbeault, D., Becker, J., & Centola, D. (2018). Complex contagions: A decade in review. Complex spreading phenomena in social systems, 3-25.	In the last decade, the literature on complex contagions has rapidly evolved both empirically and theoretically. In this review, we discuss recent developments across four empirical domains: health, innovation, social media, and politics. Each domain adds new complexities to our understanding of how contagions emerge, spread, and evolve, as well as how they undergird fundamental social processes. We also discuss how these empirical studies have spurred complementary advancements in the theoretical modeling of contagions, which concern the effects of network topology on diffusion, as well as the effects of variation in threshold dynamics. Importantly, while the empirical studies reviewed in this paper complement existing theoretical work, they also present many opportunities for new theoretical extensions. We suggest three main directions for future development of research on complex contagions. The first concerns the study of how multiple contagions interact within the same network and across networks, in what may be called an ecology of complex contagions. The second concerns the study of how the structure of thresholds and their behavioral consequences can vary by individual and social context. The third area concerns the recent discovery of diversity as a causal variable in diffusion, where diversity can refer either to the diversity of demographic profiles among local peers, or to the broader structural diversity that local peers are situated within. Throughout, we take effort to anticipate the theoretical and empirical challenges that may lie ahead.	0.1704453
t_57	Kanze, D., Huang, L., Conley, M. A., & Higgins, E. T. (2018). We ask men to win and women not to lose: Closing the gender gap in startup funding. Academy of Management Journal, 61(2), 586-614.	Male entrepreneurs are known to raise higher levels of funding than their female counterparts, but the underlying mechanism for this funding disparity remains con- tested. Drawing upon regulatory focus theory, we propose that the gap originates with a gender bias in the questions that investors pose to entrepreneurs. A field study con- ducted on question-and-answer interactions at TechCrunch Disrupt New York City during 2010 through 2016 reveals that investors tend to ask male entrepreneurs promotion-focused questions and female entrepreneurs prevention-focused questions, and that entrepreneurs tend to respond with matching regulatory focus. This distinction in the regulatory focus of investor questions and entrepreneur responses results in di- vergent funding outcomes for entrepreneurs whereby those asked promotion-focused questions raise significantly higher amounts of funding than those asked prevention- focused questions. We demonstrate that every additional prevention-focused question significantly hinders the entrepreneur’s ability to raise capital, fully mediating gender’s effect on funding. By experimentally testing an intervention, we find that entrepreneurs can significantly increase funding for their startups when responding to prevention- focused questions with promotion-focused answers. As we offer evidence regarding tactics that can be employed to diminish the gender disadvantage in funding outcomes, this study has practical as well as theoretical implications for entrepreneurship.	0.6509294
t_58	Godart, F. C., & Galunic, C. (2019). Explaining the popularity of cultural elements: Networks, culture, and the structural embeddedness of high fashion trends. Organization Science, 30(1), 151-168.	When organizations strategically adopt cultural elements—such as a name, a color, or a style—to create their products, they make crucial choices that position them in markets vis-à-vis competitors, audiences, and other stakeholders. However, although it is well understood how one specific cultural element gets adopted by actors and diffuses, it is not yet clear how elements fare when considered within an industry choice-set of elements. Their popularity depends on idiosyncratic features (such as the category they belong to), or on structural factors such as their embeddedness (through connections to producers, audiences, or even other cultural elements). We develop an integrated perspective on the popularity of cultural elements in markets. We use a network perspective to show that the popularity of elements is fostered by being structurally embedded among many unconnected elements, in addition to not being affiliated to actors widely exposed in the media. We develop our study by using a unique data set of fashion stylistic elements in the global high-end fashion industry from 1998 to 2010.	0.6374302
t_58	Godart, F., Seong, S., & Phillips, D. J. (2020). The sociology of creativity: Elements, structures, and audiences. Annual Review of Sociology, 46, 489-510.	This review integrates diverse characterizations of creativity from a sociological perspective with the goal of reinvigorating discussion of the sociology of creativity. We start by exploring relevant works of classical social theory to uncover key assumptions and principles, which are used as a theoretical basis for our proposed definition of creativity: an intentional configuration of cultural and material elements that is unexpected for a given audience. Our argument is enriched by locating creativity vis-à-vis related concepts-such as originality, knowledge, innovation, atypicality, and consecration-and across neighboring disciplines. Underlying the discussion are antecedents (structure, institutions, and context) and consequences (audiences, perception, and evaluation), which are treated separately. We end our review by speculating on ways in which sociologists can take the discussion of creativity forward.	0.2557047
t_59	Smith, C. M. (2020). Exogenous Shocks, the Criminal Elite, and Increasing Gender Inequality in Chicago Organized Crime. American Sociological Review, 85(5), 895–923.	Criminal organizations, like legitimate organizations, adapt to shifts in markets, competition, regulations, and enforcement. Exogenous shocks can be consequential moments of power consolidation, resource hoarding, and inequality amplification in legitimate organizations, but especially in criminal organizations. This research examines how the exogenous shock of the U.S. prohibition of the production, transportation, and sale of alcohol in 1920 restructured power and inequality in Chicago organized crime. I analyze a unique relational database on organized crime from the early 1900s via a criminal network that tripled in size and centralized during Prohibition. Before Prohibition, Chicago organized crime was small, decentralized, and somewhat inclusive of women at the margins. However, during Prohibition, the organized crime network grew, consolidated the organizational elites, and left out the most vulnerable participants from the most profitable opportunities. This historical case illuminates how profits and organizational restructuring outside of (or in response to) regulatory environments can displace people at the margins.	0.1062305
t_59	Smith, E. B., Brands, R. A., Brashears, M. E., & Kleinbaum, A. M. (2020). Social networks and cognition. Annual Review of Sociology, 46, 159-174.	Social network analysis, now often thought of simply as network science, has penetrated nearly every scientific and many scholarly fields and has become an indispensable resource. Yet, social networks are special by virtue of being specifically social, and our growing understanding of the brain is affecting our understanding of how social networks form, mature, and are exploited by their members. We discuss the expanding research on how the brain manages social information, how this information is heuristically processed, and how network cognitions are affected by situation and circumstance. In the process, we argue that the cognitive turn in social networks exemplifies the modern conception of the brain as fundamentally reprogrammable by experience and circumstance. Far from social networks being dependent upon the brain, we anticipate a modern view in which cognition and social networks coconstitute each other.	0.1062305
t_60	Woehler, M. L., Cullen-Lester, K. L., Porter, C. M., & Frear, K. A. (2021). Whether, How, and Why Networks Influence Men’s and Women’s Career Success: Review and Research Agenda. Journal of Management, 47(1), 207-236.	Substantial research has documented challenges women experience building and benefiting from networks to achieve career success. Yet fundamental questions remain regarding which aspects of men’s and women’s networks differ and how differences impact their careers. To spur future research to address these questions, we present an integrative framework to clarify how and why gender and networks—in concert—may explain career inequality. We delineate two distinct, complementary explanations: (1) unequal network characteristics (UNC) asserts that men and women have different network characteristics, which account for differences in career success; (2) unequal network returns (UNR) asserts that even when men and women have the same network characteristics, they yield different degrees of career success. Further, we explain why UNC and UNR emerge by identifying mechanisms related to professional contexts, actors, and contacts. Using this framework, we review evidence of UNC and UNR for specific network characteristics. We found that men’s and women’s networks are similar in structure (i.e., size, openness, closeness, contacts’ average and structural status) but differ in composition (i.e., proportion of men, same-gender, and kin contacts). Many differences mattered for career success. We identified evidence of UNC only (same-gender contacts), UNR only (actors’ and contacts’ network openness, contacts’ relative status), neither UNC nor UNR (size), and both UNC and UNR (proportion of men contacts). Based on these initial findings, we offer guidance to organizations aiming to address inequality resulting from gender differences in network creation and utilization, and we present a research agenda for scholars to advance these efforts.	0.6034921
t_61	Bellezza, S., Gino, F., & Keinan, A. (2014). The red sneakers effect: Inferring status and competence from signals of nonconformity. Journal of consumer research, 41(1), 35-54.	This research examines how people react to nonconforming behaviors, such as entering a luxury boutique wearing gym clothes rather than an elegant outfit or wearing red sneakers in a professional setting. Nonconforming behaviors, as costly and visible signals, can act as a particular form of conspicuous consumption and lead to positive inferences of status and competence in the eyes of others. A series of studies demonstrates that people confer higher status and competence to nonconforming rather than conforming individuals. These positive inferences derived from signals of nonconformity are mediated by perceived autonomy and moderated by individual differences in need for uniqueness in the observers. An investigation of boundary conditions demonstrates that the positive inferences disappear when the observer is unfamiliar with the environment, when the nonconforming behavior is depicted as unintentional, and in the absence of expected norms and shared standards of formal conduct.	0.6592814
t_62	Perry-Smith, J. E., & Mannucci, P. V. (2017). From creativity to innovation: The social network drivers of the four phases of the idea journey. Academy of Management Review, 42(1), 53-79.	Interest has burgeoned, in recent years, in how social networks influence individual creativity and innovation. From both the theoretical and empirical points of view, this increased attention has generated many inconsistencies. In this article we propose that a conceptualization of the idea journey encompassing phases that the literature has so far overlooked can help solve existing tensions. We conceptualize four phases of the journey of an idea, from conception to completion: idea generation, idea elaboration, idea championing, and idea implementation. We propose that a creator has distinct primary needs in each phase: cognitive flexibility, support, influence, and shared vision, respectively. Individual creators successfully move through a phase when the relational and structural elements of their networks match the distinct needs of the phase. The relational and structural elements that are beneficial for one phase, however, are detrimental for another. We propose that in order to solve this seeming contradiction and the associated paradoxes, individual creators have to change interpretations and frames throughout the different phases. This, in turn, allows them to activate different network characteristics at the appropriate moment and successfully complete the idea journey from novel concept to a tangible outcome that changes the field.	0.5760976
t_62	Mannucci, P. V., & Perry-Smith, J. E. (2021). “Who are you going to call?” Network activation in creative idea generation and elaboration. Academy of Management Journal, (ja).	Considering creativity as a journey beyond idea generation, scholars have theorized that different ties are beneficial in different phases. As individuals usually possess different types of ties, selecting the optimal ties in each phase and changing ties as needed are central activities for creative success. We identify the types of ties (weak or strong) that are helpful in idea generation and idea elaboration, and given this understanding, whether individuals activate ties in each phase accordingly. In an experimental study of individuals conversing with their ties, we provide evidence of the causal effects of weak and strong ties on idea generation and idea elaboration. We also find that individuals do not always activate ties optimally and identify network size and risk as barriers. Our results in a series of studies reveal that individuals with large networks, despite providing more opportunity to activate both strong and weak ties, activate fewer weak ties and are less likely to switch ties across phases than individuals with smaller networks, particularly when creativity is perceived as a high-risk endeavor. Finally, we find that activating the wrong ties leads to either dropping creative ideas or pursuing uncreative ones.	0.2744292
t_62	Keum, D. D., & See, K. E. (2017). The influence of hierarchy on idea generation and selection in the innovation process. Organization Science, 28(4), 653-669.	The link between organizational structure and innovation has been a longstanding interest of organizational scholars, yet the exact nature of the relationship has not been clearly established. Drawing on the behavioral theory of the firm, we take a process view and examine how hierarchy of authority—a fundamental element of organizational structure reflecting degree of managerial oversight—differentially influences behavior and performance in the idea generation versus idea selection phases of the innovation process. Using a multimethod approach that includes a field study and a lab experiment, we find that hierarchy of authority is detrimental to the idea generation phase of innovation, but that hierarchy can be beneficial during the screening or selection phase of innovation. We also identify a behavioral mechanism underlying the effect of hierarchy of authority on selection performance and propose that selection is a critical organizational capability that can be strategically developed and managed through organizational design. Our investigation helps clarify the theoretical relationship between structure and innovation performance and demonstrates the behavioral and economic consequences of organizational design choice.	0.1060302
t_63	Zhou, J., Wang, X. M., Song, L. J., & Wu, J. (2017). Is it new? Personal and contextual influences on perceptions of novelty and creativity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(2), 180.	Novelty recognition is the crucial starting point for extracting value from the ideas generated by others. In this paper we develop an associative evaluation account for how personal and contextual factors motivate individuals to perceive novelty and creativity. We report 4 studies that systematically tested hypotheses developed from this perspective. Study 1 (a laboratory experiment) showed that perceivers’ regulatory focus, as an experimentally induced state, affected novelty perception. Study 2 (a field study) found that perceivers’ promotion focus and prevention focus, measured as chronic traits, each interacted with normative level of novelty and creativity: perceivers who scored higher on promotion focus perceived more novelty (or creativity) in novel (or creative) targets than those who scored lower, whereas perceivers who scored higher on prevention focus perceived less novelty (or creativity) in novel (or creative) targets than those who scored lower. Study 3 (a field study) showed that organizational culture affected the perception of novelty and creativity. Study 4 (a laboratory experiment) found perceiver-by-idea-by-context 3-way interaction effects: for perceivers with prevention focus, the positive relation between normative level of novelty and novelty ratings was weakened in the loss-framing condition versus the gain-framing condition. We discuss implications of the findings for future research and management practice.	0.6011407
t_64	Boudreau, K. J., Guinan, E. C., Lakhani, K. R., & Riedl, C. (2016). Looking across and looking beyond the knowledge frontier: Intellectual distance, novelty, and resource allocation in science. Management science, 62(10), 2765-2783.	Selecting among alternative projects is a core management task in all innovating organizations. In this paper, we focus on the evaluation of frontier scientific research projects. We argue that the “intellectual distance” between the knowledge embodied in research proposals and an evaluator’s own expertise systematically relates to the evaluations given. To estimate relationships, we designed and executed a grant proposal process at a leading research university in which we randomized the assignment of evaluators and proposals to generate 2,130 evaluator–proposal pairs. We find that evaluators systematically give lower scores to research proposals that are closer to their own areas of expertise and to those that are highly novel. The patterns are consistent with biases associated with boundedly rational evaluation of new ideas. The patterns are inconsistent with intellectual distance simply contributing “noise” or being associated with private interests of evaluators. We discuss implications for policy, managerial intervention, and allocation of resources in the ongoing accumulation of scientific knowledge.	0.6430168
t_64	Criscuolo, P., Dahlander, L., Grohsjean, T., & Salter, A. (2017). Evaluating novelty: The role of panels in the selection of R&D projects. Academy of Management Journal, 60(2), 433-460.	Building on a unique, multi-source, and multi-method study of R&D projects in a leading professional services firm, we develop the argument that organizations are more likely to fund projects with intermediate levels of novelty. That is, some project novelty increases the share of requested funds received, but too much novelty is difficult to appreciate and is selected against. While prior research has considered the characteristics of the individuals generating project ideas, we shift the focus to the panel of selectors and explore how they shape the evaluation of novelty. We theorize that a high panel workload reduces panel preference for novelty in selection, whereas a diversity of panel expertise and a shared location between panel and applicant increase preference for novelty. We explore the implications of these findings for theories of innovation search, organizational selection, and managerial practice.	0.1310559
t_65	Garcia, D., Kassa, Y. M., Cuevas, A., Cebrian, M., Moro, E., Rahwan, I., & Cuevas, R. (2018). Analyzing gender inequality through large-scale Facebook advertising data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(27), 6958-6963.	Online social media are information resources that can have a transformative power in society. While the Web was envisioned as an equalizing force that allows everyone to access information, the digital divide prevents large amounts of people from being present online. Online social media, in particular, are prone to gender inequality, an important issue given the link between social media use and employment. Understanding gender inequality in social media is a challenging task due to the necessity of data sources that can provide large-scale measurements across multiple countries. Here, we show how the Facebook Gender Divide (FGD), a metric based on aggregated statistics of more than 1.4 billion users in 217 countries, explains various aspects of worldwide gender inequality. Our analysis shows that the FGD encodes gender equality indices in education, health, and economic opportunity. We find gender differences in network externalities that suggest that using social media has an added value for women. Furthermore, we find that low values of the FGD are associated with increases in economic gender equality. Our results suggest that online social networks, while suffering evident gender imbalance, may lower the barriers that women have to access to informational resources and help to narrow the economic gender gap.	0.5903766
t_66	Brands, R. A., Menges, J. I., & Kilduff, M. (2015). The leader-in-social-network schema: Perceptions of network structure affect gendered attributions of charisma. Organization Science, 26(4), 1210-1225.	Charisma is crucially important for a range of leadership outcomes. Charisma is also in the eye of the beholder—an attribute perceived by followers. Traditional leadership theory has tended to assume charismatic attributions flow to men rather than women. We challenge this assumption of an inevitable charismatic bias toward men leaders. We propose that gender-biased attributions about the charismatic leadership of men and women are facilitated by the operation of a leader-in-social-network schema. Attributions of charismatic leadership depend on the match between the gender of the leader and the perceived structure of the network. In three studies encompassing both experimental and survey data, we show that when team advice networks are perceived to be centralized around one or a few individuals, women leaders are seen as less charismatic than men leaders. However, when networks are perceived to be cohesive (many connections among individuals), it is men who suffer a charismatic leadership disadvantage relative to women. Perceptions of leadership depend not only on whether the leader is a man or a woman but also on the social network context in which the leader is embedded.	0.6261538
t_67	Centola, D., Becker, J., Brackbill, D., & Baronchelli, A. (2018). Experimental evidence for tipping points in social convention. Science, 360(6393), 1116-1119.	Theoretical models of critical mass have shown how minority groups can initiate social change dynamics in the emergence of new social conventions. Here, we study an artificial system of social conventions in which human subjects interact to establish a new coordination equilibrium. The findings provide direct empirical demonstration of the existence of a tipping point in the dynamics of changing social conventions. When minority groups reached the critical mass—that is, the critical group size for initiating social change—they were consistently able to overturn the established behavior. The size of the required critical mass is expected to vary based on theoretically identifiable features of a social setting. Our results show that the theoretically predicted dynamics of critical mass do in fact emerge as expected within an empirical system of social coordination.	0.5703030
t_67	Burt, R. S. (1998). The gender of social capital. Rationality and society, 10(1), 5-46.	Legitimacy affects returns to social capital. I begin with the network structure of social capital, explaining the information and control benefits of structural holes. The holes in a network are entrepreneurial opportunities to add value, and persons rich in such opportunities are expected to be more successful than their peers. Accumulating empirical research supports the prediction. However, women here pose a puzzle. The entrepreneurial networks linked to early promotion for senior men do not work for women. Solving the gender puzzle is an occasion to see how network models of social capital can be used to identify people not accepted as legitimate members of a population, and to describe how such people get access to social capital by borrowing the network of a strategic partner.	0.1055944
t_68	Khattab, J., Van Knippenberg, D., Pieterse, A. N., & Hernandez, M. (2020). A network utilization perspective on the leadership advancement of minorities. Academy of Management Review, 45(1), 109-129.	Social network researchers have shown that, compared to their effect on majority employees, structural constraints can cause minority employees to end up in network positions that limit their access to resources (i.e., social capital) and that consequently limit their access to professional opportunities. These findings, however, do not explain why structurally equivalent minority and majority employees achieve differential returns of social capital on their leadership advancement. We propose that majority and minority employees differ in terms of network utilization, which is the extent to which individuals utilize their existing network ties. We theorize why and how network utilization processes—career and work utilization of network ties—can explain employees’ (i.e., actors) influence on their leadership advancement. We also explicate the process through which actors’ direct and indirect network connections (i.e., alters) contribute to such outcomes through both career-supporting utilization and work-supporting utilization with actors. We conclude by outlining the boundary conditions of network utilization theory, a theory that changes the current understanding of how existing social network ties can perpetuate the underrepresentation of minorities in leadership positions.	0.5949309
t_69	Sanyal, P. (2009). From credit to collective action: The role of microfinance in promoting women's social capital and normative influence. American sociological review, 74(4), 529-550.	Can economic ties positively influence social relations and actions? If so, how does this influence operate? Microfinance programs, which provide credit through a group-based lending strategy, provide the ideal setting for exploring these questions. This article examines whether structuring socially isolated women into peer-groups for an explicitly economic purpose, such as access to credit, has any effect on the women’s collective social behavior. Based on interviews with 400 women from 59 microfinance groups in West Bengal, India, I find that one third of these groups undertook various collective actions. Improvements in women’s social capital and normative influence fostered this capacity for collective action. Several factors contributed to these transformations, including economic ties among members, the structure of the group network, and women’s participation in group meetings. Based on these findings, I argue that microfinance groups have the potential to promote women’s social capital and normative influence, thereby facilitating women’s collective empowerment. I conclude by discussing the need for refining our understanding of social capital and social ties that promote normative influence.	0.6870968
t_70	Sarsons, H., Gërxhani, K., Reuben, E., & Schram, A. (2021). Gender differences in recognition for group work. Journal of Political Economy, 129(1), 101-147.	We study whether gender influences credit attribution for group work using observational data and two experiments. We use data from academic economists to test whether coauthorship matters differently for tenure for men and women. We find that, conditional on quality and other observables, men are tenured similarly regardless of whether they coauthor or solo author. Women, however, are less likely to receive tenure the more they coauthor. We then conduct two experiments that demonstrate that biases in credit attribution in settings without confounds exist. Taken together, our results are best explained by gender and stereotypes influencing credit attribution for group work.	0.5230088
t_70	Haynes, M. C., & Heilman, M. E. (2013). It had to be you (not me)! Women’s attributional rationalization of their contribution to successful joint work outcomes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(7), 956-969.	We investigated the tendency of women to undervalue their contributions in collaborative contexts. Participants, who believed they were working with another study participant on a male sex-typed task, received positive feedback about the team’s performance. Results indicated that women and men allocated credit for the joint success very differently. Women gave more credit to their male teammates and took less credit themselves unless their role in bringing about the performance outcome was irrefutably clear (Studies 1 and 2) or they were given explicit information about their likely task competence (Study 4). However, women did not credit themselves less when their teammate was female (Study 3). Together these studies demonstrate that women devalue their contributions to collaborative work, and that they do so by engaging in attributional rationalization, a process sparked by women’s negative performance expectations and facilitated by source ambiguity and a satisfactory “other” to whom to allocate credit.	0.2808917
t_71	Hollander, E. P. (1958). Conformity, status, and idiosyncrasy credit. Psychological review, 65(2), 117.	Beginning with the consideration that social behavior depends upon attributes of the individual, conditions of the situation, and inputs to a dynamic system arising from their interaction, a theoretical conception relating conformity and status is presented. The major mediating construct introduced is 'idiosyncrasy credit,' taken to be an index of status, in the operational sense of permitting deviations from common 'expectancies' of the group. Credits are postulated to increase or decrease as a function of the group's perception of the individual's task performance and generalized characteristics, and of his 'idiosyncratic behavior.' Though increases in credit are seen to permit greater latitude for idiosyncratic behavior, motivational and perceptual states of the individual, and group-level phenomena, are also considered.	0.3000000
t_71	Ibarra, H. (1992). Homophily and differential returns: Sex differences in network structure and access in an advertising firm. Administrative science quarterly, 422-447.	This paper argues that two network mechanisms operate to create and reinforce gender inequalities in the organizational distribution of power: sex differences in homophily (i.e., tendency to form same-sex network relationships) and in the ability to convert individual attributes and positional resources into network advantages. These arguments were tested in a network analytic study of men's and women's interaction patterns in an advertising firm. Men were more likely to form homophilous ties across multiple networks and to have stronger homophilous ties, while women evidenced a differentiated network pattern in which they obtained social support and friendship from women and instrumental access through network ties to men. Although centrality in organization-wide networks did not vary by sex once controls were instituted, relative to women, men appeared to reap greater network returns from similar individual and positional resources, as well as from homophilous relationships.	0.2072626
t_71	DiMaggio, P., & Garip, F. (2012). Network effects and social inequality. Annual review of sociology, 38, 93-118.	Students of social inequality have noted the presence of mechanisms militating toward cumulative advantage and increasing inequality. Social scientists have established that individuals' choices are influenced by those of their network peers in many social domains. We suggest that the ubiquity of network effects and tendencies toward cumulative advantage are related. Inequality is exacerbated when effects of individual differences are multiplied by social networks: when persons must decide whether to adopt beneficial practices; when network externalities, social learning, or normative pressures influence adoption decisions; and when networks are homophilous with respect to individual characteristics that predict such decisions. We review evidence from literatures on network effects on technology, labor markets, education, demography, and health; identify several mechanisms through which networks may generate higher levels of inequality than one would expect based on differences in initial endowments alone; consider cases in which network effects may ameliorate inequality; and describe research priorities.	0.1074866
t_72	Kilduff, M., & Lee, J. W. (2020). The integration of people and networks. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 7, 155-179.	Social networks involve ties (and their absence) between people in social settings such as organizations. Yet much social network research, given its roots in sociology, ignores the individuality of people in emphasizing the constraints of the structural positions that people occupy. A recent movement to bring people back into social network research draws on the rich history of social psychological research to show that (a) personality (i.e., self-monitoring) is key to understanding individuals’ occupation of social network positions, (b) individuals’ perceptions of social networks relate to important outcomes, and (c) relational energy is transmitted through social network connections. Research at different levels of analysis includes the network around the individual (the ego network), dyadic ties, triadic structures, and whole networks of interacting individuals. We call for future research concerning personality and structure, social network change, perceptions of networks, and cross-cultural differences in how social network connections are understood.	0.2699482
t_72	Perry-Smith, J., & Mannucci, P. V. (2019). From ugly duckling to swan: a social network perspective on novelty recognition and creativity. In Social Networks at Work (pp. 178-199). Routledge.	Given the growing importance of novelty recognition for both theory and practice, this chapter focuses on the emerging stream of research that looks at how social networks affect the ability to recognize novelty, both at the individual and at the field level. Importantly, we emphasize individual creative outcomes rather than team or collective outcomes. We first review the extant literature on net- works and idea generation in order to provide a complete picture of the history of the field. We then review literature that has looked at novelty recognition from a non-network perspective. Next, we present research in social networks relevant to this issue and describe how a social network lens informs novelty recognition from the perspective of both the creator and the field. We conclude with a discussion of ideas for future research on social networks and creativity in general and specific to a social network approach to novelty recognition.	0.1802395
t_72	Tasselli, S., & Kilduff, M. (2021). Network agency. Academy of Management Annals, 15(1), 68-110.	The question of agency has been neglected in social network research, in part because the structural approach to social relations removes consideration of individual volition and action. However, recent emphasis on purposive individuals has reignited interest in agency across a range of social network research topics. Our paper provides a brief history of social network agency and an emergent framework based on a thorough review of research published since 2004. This organizing framework distinguishes between an ontology of dualism (actors and social relations as separate domains) and an ontology of duality (actors and social relations as mutually constituted) at both the individual and the social network level. The resulting four perspectives on network agency comprise individual advantage, embeddedness, micro-foundations, and structuration. In conclusion, we address current debates and future directions relating to sources of action and the locus of identity.	0.1320000
t_72	Khattab, J., Van Knippenberg, D., Pieterse, A. N., & Hernandez, M. (2020). A network utilization perspective on the leadership advancement of minorities. Academy of Management Review, 45(1), 109-129.	Social network researchers have shown that, compared to their effect on majority employees, structural constraints can cause minority employees to end up in network positions that limit their access to resources (i.e., social capital) and that consequently limit their access to professional opportunities. These findings, however, do not explain why structurally equivalent minority and majority employees achieve differential returns of social capital on their leadership advancement. We propose that majority and minority employees differ in terms of network utilization, which is the extent to which individuals utilize their existing network ties. We theorize why and how network utilization processes—career and work utilization of network ties—can explain employees’ (i.e., actors) influence on their leadership advancement. We also explicate the process through which actors’ direct and indirect network connections (i.e., alters) contribute to such outcomes through both career-supporting utilization and work-supporting utilization with actors. We conclude by outlining the boundary conditions of network utilization theory, a theory that changes the current understanding of how existing social network ties can perpetuate the underrepresentation of minorities in leadership positions.	0.1248848
t_72	Kilduff, M., & Brass, D. J. (2010). Organizational social network research: Core ideas and key debates. Academy of management annals, 4(1), 317-357.	Given the growing popularity of the social network perspective across diverse organizational subject areas, this review examines the coherence of the research tradition (in terms of leading ideas from which the diversity of new research derives) and appraises current directions and controversies. The leading ideas at the heart of the organizational social network research program include: an emphasis on relations between actors; the embeddedness of exchange in social relations; the assumption that dyadic relationships do not occur in isolation, but rather form a complex structural pattern of connectivity and cleavage beyond the dyad; and the belief that social network connections matter in terms of outcomes to both actors and groups of actors across a range of indicators. These leading ideas are articulated in current debates that center on issues of actor characteristics, agency, cognition, cooperation versus competition, and boundary specification. To complement the review, we provide a glossary of social network terms.	0.1207650
t_72	Brashears, M. E., Hoagland, E., & Quintane, E. (2016). Sex and network recall accuracy. Social Networks, 44, 74-84.	How does an individual’s sex influence their recall of social relations? Extensive research has shown that social networks differ by sex and has attempted to explain these differences either through structural availability or individual preferences. Addressing the limitations of these explanations, we build on an increasing body of research emphasizing the role of cognition in the formation and maintenance of networks to argue that males and females may exhibit different strategies for encoding and recalling social information in memory. Further, because activating sex roles can alter cognitive performance, we propose that differences in recall may only or primarily appear when respondents are made aware of their sex. We explore differences in male and female network memory using a laboratory experiment asking respondents to memorize and recall a novel social network after receiving either a sex prime or a control prime. We find that sex significantly impacts social network recall, however being made aware of one’s sex does not. Our results provide evidence that differences in male and female networks may be partly due to sex-based differences in network cognition.	0.1115942
t_72	DiMaggio, P., & Garip, F. (2012). Network effects and social inequality. Annual review of sociology, 38, 93-118.	Students of social inequality have noted the presence of mechanisms militating toward cumulative advantage and increasing inequality. Social scientists have established that individuals' choices are influenced by those of their network peers in many social domains. We suggest that the ubiquity of network effects and tendencies toward cumulative advantage are related. Inequality is exacerbated when effects of individual differences are multiplied by social networks: when persons must decide whether to adopt beneficial practices; when network externalities, social learning, or normative pressures influence adoption decisions; and when networks are homophilous with respect to individual characteristics that predict such decisions. We review evidence from literatures on network effects on technology, labor markets, education, demography, and health; identify several mechanisms through which networks may generate higher levels of inequality than one would expect based on differences in initial endowments alone; consider cases in which network effects may ameliorate inequality; and describe research priorities.	0.1074866
t_73	Mueller, J. S., Melwani, S., & Goncalo, J. A. (2012). The bias against creativity: Why people desire but reject creative ideas. Psychological science, 23(1), 13-17.	People often reject creative ideas, even when espousing creativity as a desired goal. To explain this paradox, we propose that people can hold a bias against creativity that is not necessarily overt and that is activated when people experience a motivation to reduce uncertainty. In two experiments, we manipulated uncertainty using different methods, including an uncertainty-reduction prime. The results of both experiments demonstrated the existence of a negative bias against creativity (relative to practicality) when participants experienced uncertainty. Furthermore, this bias against creativity interfered with participants’ ability to recognize a creative idea. These results reveal a concealed barrier that creative actors may face as they attempt to gain acceptance for their novel ideas.	0.4894737
t_74	Elsbach, K. D., & Kramer, R. M. (2003). Assessing creativity in Hollywood pitch meetings: Evidence for a dual-process model of creativity judgments. Academy of Management journal, 46(3), 283-301.	This study addresses an important but neglected topic by investigating the social judgment processes that experts (studio executives and producers in Hollywood) use to assess the creative potential of unknown others (relatively unknown screenwriters) during “pitch” meetings in which screenwriters attempt to sell their ideas. The findings suggest a dual-process social judgment model. In one process, person categorization, the experts used behavioral and physical cues to match “pitchers” with seven creative and uncreative prototypes. In another process, relationship categorization, the experts used relational cues and self-perceptions to match pitchers with two relational prototypes.	0.7033058
t_74	Proudfoot, D., & Fath, S. (2021). Signaling creative genius: How perceived social connectedness influences judgments of creative potential. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 47(4), 580-592.	In today’s knowledge economy, effectively signaling one’s creative potential can be advantageous. Five experiments demonstrate that cues signaling a person’s separateness from others (as opposed to social connectedness) boost evaluations of their creative potential. “Lone” targets—engaging in activities alone—were judged more likely to generate creative ideas compared with targets engaging in identical activities with others. This effect was explained by perceived social independence and was unique to creativity judgments—our manipulation did not influence perceptions of other positive attributes, including ability to generate practical ideas (Studies 1a and 1b). The effect of social independence on perceived creativity was not reducible to perceived nonnormativity and was attenuated when creativity was construed as requiring convergent thinking rather than divergent thinking (Studies 2–4). Findings advance our understanding of how individuals of varying degrees of social connectedness tend to be viewed by others, providing insight into observers’ lay beliefs about creative potential.	0.4322404
t_75	Lim, J. H., Tai, K., Bamberger, P. A., & Morrison, E. W. (2020). Soliciting resources from others: An integrative review. Academy of Management Annals, 14(1), 122-159.	Resource seeking, or the act of asking others for things that can help one attain one’s goals, is an important behavior within organizations because of the increasingly dynamic nature of work that demands collaboration and coordination among employees. Over the past two decades, there has been growing research in the organizational sciences on four types of resource seeking behaviors: feedback seeking, information seeking, advice seeking, and help seeking. However, research on these four behaviors has existed in separate silos. We argue that there is value in recognizing that these behaviors reflect a common higher order construct (resource seeking), and in integrating the findings across the four literatures as a basis for understanding what we do and do not know about the predictors and outcomes of resource seeking at work. More specifically, we use conservation of resources (COR) theory as a framework to guide our integration across the four literatures and to both deepen and extend current understandings of why and when employees engage in resource seeking, as well as how resource seeking behaviors may lead to both individual- and collective-level outcomes. We conclude with a discussion of future research needs and how COR theory can provide a fruitful foundation for future resource seeking research.	0.6458128
t_76	Vásárhelyi, O., Zakhlebin, I., Milojevic, S., & Horvát, E. Á. (2021). Gender inequities in the online dissemination of scholars’ work. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(39).	Unbiased science dissemination has the potential to alleviate some of the known gender disparities in academia by exposing female scholars’ work to other scientists and the public. And yet, we lack comprehensive understanding of the relationship between gender and science dissemination online. Our large-scale analyses, encompassing half a million scholars, revealed that female scholars’ work is mentioned less frequently than male scholars’ work in all research areas. When exploring the characteristics associated with online success, we found that the impact of prior work, social capital, and gendered tie formation in coauthorship networks are linked with online success for men, but not for women—even in the areas with the highest female representation. These results suggest that while men’s scientific impact and collaboration networks are associated with higher visibility online, there are no universally identifiable facets associated with success for women. Our comprehensive empirical evidence indicates that the gender gap in online science dissemination is coupled with a lack of understanding the characteristics that are linked with female scholars’ success, which might hinder efforts to close the gender gap in visibility.	0.4601896
t_76	Uzzi, B., Mukherjee, S., Stringer, M., & Jones, B. (2013). Atypical combinations and scientific impact. Science, 342(6157), 468-472.	Novelty is an essential feature of creative ideas, yet the building blocks of new ideas are often embodied in existing knowledge. From this perspective, balancing atypical knowledge with conventional knowledge may be critical to the link between innovativeness and impact. Our analysis of 17.9 million papers spanning all scientific fields suggests that science follows a nearly universal pattern: The highest-impact science is primarily grounded in exceptionally conventional combinations of prior work yet simultaneously features an intrusion of unusual combinations. Papers of this type were twice as likely to be highly cited works. Novel combinations of prior work are rare, yet teams are 37.7% more likely than solo authors to insert novel combinations into familiar knowledge domains.	0.2051095
t_77	Belliveau, M. A. (2005). Blind ambition? The effects of social networks and institutional sex composition on the job search outcomes of elite coeducational and women’s college graduates. Organization Science, 16(2), 134-150.	In this paper, I develop a perspective on women’s career attainment focused on how employers’ salary offers may be constructed based on their assumptions regarding women’s access to comparative salary information. Therefore, although the use of social networks in job search may enhance women’s actual knowledge of prevailing wages, I hypothesize that institutional characteristics that employers could assume to constrain women’s networks and concomitant access to salary information will directly affect salary offers, as well as moderating the influence of network ties on pay. To test this perspective, job search outcomes of women attending elite coeducational and women’s colleges were examined. Regarding the number of offers obtained, women who consulted with proportionally more male peer and employed adult male advice ties received significantly more job offers than women using fewer male advice contacts. With regard to salary offers, this study reveals an institutional sex composition effect: women exiting single-sex institutions (i.e., women’s colleges) received significantly lower salary offers than women from coeducational schools, even after accounting for human capital, job characteristics, and institutional reputation. The effects of social networks on pay were moderated by institutional sex composition such that women exiting women’s colleges received lower returns in the form of salary to their cross-gender advice ties than did women from a matched coeducational institution. Implications of these results for theories of social capital and women’s occupational attainment are discussed.	0.6724590
t_78	Seong, S., & Godart, F. C. (2018). Influencing the influencers: Diversification, semantic strategies, and creativity evaluations. Academy of Management Journal, 61(3), 966-993.	Diversification can be risky, as it extends a firm’s identity across multiple categories. This study examines cultural and symbolic strategies used to mitigate such risks by managing the emergence of multiple identities. A key strategic choice is “naming;” the parent’s name may be included in the new subsidiary’s name (“semantic seeding”) or not (“semantic autonomy”). A stock of parent–subsidiary names serves as a lens through which gatekeepers evaluate the parent’s underlying creativity at the time of spanning categories. There is expected to be interfirm variance in creativity evaluations due to the differences in the number of autonomous or seeded names a parent sustains, the degree of visibility of different names, and the timing of introducing a new name. Using a panel dataset of global high-end fashion houses between 1998 and 2010, we found that each new autonomous subsidiary name enhanced the parent’s creativity appeal up to a certain point (an inverted U-shaped relationship). However, the predicted negative linear effect of seeded subsidiary names was not supported. Furthermore, gatekeepers’ ongoing memory of the focal firm was found to influence the parent’s perceived creativity. Our findings point to the possibility of using unfocused market presence for influencing the influencers.	0.5691943
t_79	Srivastava, S. B. (2015). Network intervention: Assessing the effects of formal mentoring on workplace networks. Social Forces, 94(1), 427-452.	This article assesses the effects of formal mentoring on workplace networks. It also provides conceptual clarity and empirical evidence on expected gender differences in the effects of such programs. Qualitative interviews with 40 past participants in a formal mentoring program at a software laboratory in Beijing, China, provide insight into the core mechanisms by which such programs produce network change: access to organizational elites, participation in semiformal foci, enhanced social skills, and legitimacy-enhancing signals. These mechanisms are theorized to lead to an expansion in protégés’ networks, relative to those of non-participants in formal mentoring. Legitimacy-enhancing signals are theorized to enable female protégés to derive greater network benefit from formal mentoring than their male counterparts. Empirical support for these propositions comes from a longitudinal quasi-experiment involving 75 employees who experienced the treatment of formal mentoring and 64 employees in a matched control group. A second empirical strategy, which exploits exogenous variation in the timing of treatment and enables a comparison of the post-program networks of one treated group to the pre-program networks of another treated group, provides corroborating support. These findings contribute to research on the efficacy of formal mentoring, gender and workplace networks, and the cumulative advantage or disadvantage that can arise from network change.	0.6862069
t_80	Ding, W. W., Murray, F., & Stuart, T. E. (2013). From bench to board: Gender differences in university scientists' participation in corporate scientific advisory boards. Academy of Management Journal, 56(5), 1443-1464.	This article examines the gender difference in the likelihood that male and female academic scientists will join corporate scientific advisory boards (SABs). We assess (i) demand-side theories that relate the gap in scientists' rate of joining SABs to the opportunity structure of SAB invitations, and (ii) supply-side explanations that attribute that gap to scientists' preferences for work of this type. We statistically examine the demand- and supply-side perspectives in a national sample of 6,000 life scientists whose careers span more than 30 years. Holding constant professional achievement, network ties, employer characteristics, and research foci, male scientists are almost twice as likely as females to serve on the SABs of biotechnology companies. We do not find evidence in our data supporting a choice-based explanation for the gender gap. Instead, demand-side theoretical perspectives focusing on gender-stereotyped perceptions and the unequal opportunities embedded in social networks appear to explain some of the gap.	0.5133333
t_80	Tian, F. F., & Liu, X. (2018). Gendered double embeddedness: Finding jobs through networks in the Chinese labor market. Social Networks, 52, 28-36.	Inspired by the concept of “double embeddedness,” we argue that the gender gap in network-based job searching depends on the degree of legitimacy of gender status beliefs across institutional contexts. Analyses from the 2008 Chinese General Social Survey show that the gender gap in network-based job searching is larger in the market sector than in the state sector, as the gender status beliefs are more legitimate in the former than in the latter. Additionally, the sector difference of the gender gap in network-based job searching is significant when the resources channeled through networks are information-related, but it is insignificant when the network resources are influence-related. These findings indicate that job searching is double embedded in social networks and in cultural institutions.	0.1095238
t_81	Trapido, D. (2015). How novelty in knowledge earns recognition: The role of consistent identities. Research Policy, 44(8), 1488-1500.	The novelty of scientific or technological knowledge has a paradoxical dual implication. Highly novel ideas are subject to a higher risk of rejection by their evaluating audiences than incremental, “normal science” contributions. Yet the same audiences may deem a contribution to knowledge valuable because it is highly novel. This study develops and tests an explanation of this dual effect. It is argued that the recognition premium that highly acclaimed authors’ work enjoys disproportionately accrues to work that is consistent with the authors’ previously developed identity. Because high novelty is a salient identity marker, authors’ past recognition for highly novel work helps same authors’ new highly novel work earn positive audience valuation. It is further argued that, because recognition for novelty is partly inherited from mentors, disciples of highly acclaimed producers of novel work are more likely to have their work prized for its novelty. In contrast, the authors’ or their mentors’ recognition earned for relatively less novel work does not trigger similar spillover effects and leaves the authors vulnerable to the novelty discount. Unique data on the productivity, career histories, and mentoring relations of academic electrical engineers support these arguments.	0.4479452
t_81	Uzzi, B., Mukherjee, S., Stringer, M., & Jones, B. (2013). Atypical combinations and scientific impact. Science, 342(6157), 468-472.	Novelty is an essential feature of creative ideas, yet the building blocks of new ideas are often embodied in existing knowledge. From this perspective, balancing atypical knowledge with conventional knowledge may be critical to the link between innovativeness and impact. Our analysis of 17.9 million papers spanning all scientific fields suggests that science follows a nearly universal pattern: The highest-impact science is primarily grounded in exceptionally conventional combinations of prior work yet simultaneously features an intrusion of unusual combinations. Papers of this type were twice as likely to be highly cited works. Novel combinations of prior work are rare, yet teams are 37.7% more likely than solo authors to insert novel combinations into familiar knowledge domains.	0.2416058
t_82	Rindova, V. P., & Petkova, A. P. (2007). When is a new thing a good thing? Technological change, product form design, and perceptions of value for product innovations. Organization Science, 18(2), 217-232.	Innovation researchers recognize that the uncertainty with regard to the value-creating potential of product innovations increases with their technological novelty, and have argued that the usefulness and value of novel products are socially constructed. Despite this recognition, researchers have not explored how the outer form in which a technological innovation is embodied influences the processes through which the innovation’s value is constructed and perceived. In this paper we argue that by embodying novel technologies in objects with specific functional, symbolic, and aesthetic properties, innovating firms also endow their products with cues that trigger a variety of cognitive and emotional responses. Drawing on psychological research we articulate how such cognitive and emotional responses underlie initial perceptions of value and theorize how innovating firms can influence them through product form design. Our framework explains how product form contributes to perceptions of value by modulating the actual technological novelty of a product innovation and facilitating how customers cope with it. Our theoretical framework makes an important contribution to innovation research and practice because it articulates how product form can be used strategically to achieve specific cognitive and emotional effects and enhance the initial customer perceptions of the value of an innovation.	0.7654378
t_83	Tasselli, S., & Kilduff, M. (2021). Network agency. Academy of Management Annals, 15(1), 68-110.	The question of agency has been neglected in social network research, in part because the structural approach to social relations removes consideration of individual volition and action. However, recent emphasis on purposive individuals has reignited interest in agency across a range of social network research topics. Our paper provides a brief history of social network agency and an emergent framework based on a thorough review of research published since 2004. This organizing framework distinguishes between an ontology of dualism (actors and social relations as separate domains) and an ontology of duality (actors and social relations as mutually constituted) at both the individual and the social network level. The resulting four perspectives on network agency comprise individual advantage, embeddedness, micro-foundations, and structuration. In conclusion, we address current debates and future directions relating to sources of action and the locus of identity.	0.4462857
t_83	Kilduff, M., & Brass, D. J. (2010). Organizational social network research: Core ideas and key debates. Academy of management annals, 4(1), 317-357.	Given the growing popularity of the social network perspective across diverse organizational subject areas, this review examines the coherence of the research tradition (in terms of leading ideas from which the diversity of new research derives) and appraises current directions and controversies. The leading ideas at the heart of the organizational social network research program include: an emphasis on relations between actors; the embeddedness of exchange in social relations; the assumption that dyadic relationships do not occur in isolation, but rather form a complex structural pattern of connectivity and cleavage beyond the dyad; and the belief that social network connections matter in terms of outcomes to both actors and groups of actors across a range of indicators. These leading ideas are articulated in current debates that center on issues of actor characteristics, agency, cognition, cooperation versus competition, and boundary specification. To complement the review, we provide a glossary of social network terms.	0.3448087
t_84	Brands, R. A., & Rattan, A. (2020). Perceived Centrality in Social Networks Increases Women’s Expectations of Confronting Sexism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 46(12), 1682-1701.	This article integrates the study of intergroup relations and social network cognition, predicting that women who occupy central (vs. peripheral) advice network positions are more likely to confront a coworker’s gender-biased comment. Study 1 offers correlational evidence of the predicted link between perceived advice network centrality and confronting among employed women, uniquely in advice (but not communication) networks. Study 2 replicates and investigates two possible mechanisms—perceptions of the situation as public and perceived risk of confronting. Study 3 rules out order effects and tests an additional mechanism (expectations of the network members). Study 4 is an experiment that shows people expect central (vs. peripheral) women to confront more, even when she is lower (vs. equal) power. Study 5 replicates the core hypothesis in retrospective accounts of women’s responses to real workplace gender bias. Study 6 compares multiple potential mechanisms to provide greater insight into why centrality reliably predicts confrontation.	0.3862944
t_84	Liao, Y. C. (2021). Gender and quality signals: How does gender influence the effectiveness of signals in crowdfunding?. Journal of Small Business Management, 59(sup1), S153-S192.	Combining signaling theory and gender role congruity theory, this study examines if the quality signals of entrepreneurs and their ventures are perceived differently because of their gender, which, in turn, affects the crowdfunding performance. In a sample of 14,729 campaigns in Kickstarter, this study shows that gender determines the effectiveness of signals in enhancing funding performance, but not uniformly to the disadvantage of women. While females are rewarded less with the signals of competence and qualification, they benefit more from the signal of social ties. This study offers implications for evaluating entrepreneurial projects and strategies for crafting an effective pitch.	0.1888889
t_85	Berg, J. M. (2016). Balancing on the creative highwire: Forecasting the success of novel ideas in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 61(3), 433-468.	Betting on the most promising new ideas is key to creativity and innovation in organizations, but predicting the success of novel ideas can be difficult. To select the best ideas, creators and managers must excel at creative forecasting, the skill of predicting the outcomes of new ideas. Using both a field study of 339 professionals in the circus arts industry and a lab experiment, I examine the conditions for accurate creative forecasting, focusing on the effect of creators’ and managers’ roles. In the field study, creators and managers forecasted the success of new circus acts with audiences, and the accuracy of these forecasts was assessed using data from 13,248 audience members. Results suggest that creators were more accurate than managers when forecasting about others’ novel ideas, but not their own. This advantage over managers was undermined when creators previously had poor ideas that were successful in the marketplace anyway. Results from the lab experiment show that creators’ advantage over managers in predicting success may be tied to the emphasis on both divergent thinking (idea generation) and convergent thinking (idea evaluation) in the creator role, while the manager role emphasizes only convergent thinking. These studies highlight that creative forecasting is a critical bridge linking creativity and innovation, shed light on the importance of roles in creative forecasting, and advance theory on why creative success is difficult to sustain over time.	0.6441296
t_86	Brashears, M. E. (2008). Gender and homophily: Differences in male and female association in Blau space. Social Science Research, 37(2), 400-415.	Homophily, the tendency for similar individuals to associate, is one of the most robust findings in social science. Despite this robustness, we have less information about how personal characteristics relate to differences in the strength of homophily. Nor do we know much about the impact of personal characteristics on judgments of relative dissimilarity. The present study compares the strength of age, religious, and educational homophily for male and female non-kin ties using network data from the 1985 General Social Survey. It also compares the patterning of ties among dissimilar alters for both sexes. The results of this exploratory effort indicate that males and females are almost equally homophilous, although religious homophily exerts a stronger influence on females than males. Males and females do, however, differ in their tendency to associate with certain types of dissimilar alters. Education is essentially uniform for both sexes, religious difference is more important for females than males, and those over sixty or under thirty are less different from the middle categories of age for females than for males. The results suggest that males are able to bridge larger areas of social space in their non-kin interpersonal networks and likely accumulate greater social capital as a consequence.	0.3749280
t_86	Brashears, M. E. (2008). Sex, society, and association: A cross-national examination of status construction theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 71(1), 72-85.	Status construction theory (SCT) has established a set of sufficient conditions for the formation of status characteristics that define informal hierarchies. However, while it has proven successful in explaining the development of status-laden personal characteristics in the laboratory, relatively less attention has been devoted to its predictions at the societal level. This paper alters the current state of affairs by examining the predictions of status construction theory using the 2001 International Social Survey Program's networks module. This data source allows the comparison of a macro-level distribution of a goal object (authority positions) with a novel measure of status derived from the social networks literature. The results are consistent with the predictions of SCT, supporting the theory outside the laboratory and cross-nationally.	0.3749280
t_87	Son, J., & Lin, N. (2012). Network diversity, contact diversity, and status attainment. Social Networks, 34(4), 601-613.	We propose that diversity in social relations measured by network diversity and cross-race/cross-gender contacts affords job seekers higher contact status that in turn brings better status attainment outcomes. Controlling for traditional strength of tie measures and other confounders, the empirical study confirms that (1) network diversity in race and gender are significantly associated with actual utilization of cross-race/cross-gender contacts in job search, (2) use of cross-race/cross-gender contacts is significantly related to higher contact status for nonwhite and female job seekers, but (3) contact status (activated social capital) partially provides jobs of higher SEI scores for white job seekers. Similarly, male job seekers obtain better jobs through female contacts, but the same does not apply to female job seekers. These findings show relative return deficits of social capital experienced by racial minorities and females even when they exert extra effort to obtain heterogeneous social relations and contacts.	0.7127854
t_87	McDonald, S. (2011). What's in the “old boys” network? Accessing social capital in gendered and racialized networks. Social networks, 33(4), 317-330.	Network processes have long been implicated in the reproduction of labor market inequality, but it remains unclear whether white male networks provide more social capital resources than female and minority networks. Analysis of nationally representative survey data reveals that people in white male networks receive twice as many job leads as people in female/minority networks. White male networks are also comprised of higher status connections than female/minority networks. The information and status benefits of membership in these old boy networks accrue to all respondents and not just white men. Furthermore, gender homophilous contacts offer greater job finding assistance than other contacts. The results specify how social capital flows through gendered and racialized networks.	0.3296774
t_88	Brands, R. A., & Kilduff, M. (2014). Just like a woman? Effects of gender-biased perceptions of friendship network brokerage on attributions and performance. Organization Science, 25(5), 1530-1548.	Do women face bias in the social realm in which they are purported to excel? Across two different studies (one organizational and one comprising MBA teams), we examined whether the friendship networks around women tend to be systematically misperceived and whether there were effects of these misperceptions on the women themselves and their teammates. Thus, we investigated the possibility (hitherto neglected in the network literature) that biases in friendship networks are triggered not just by the complexity of social relationships but also by the gender of those being perceived. Study 1 showed that, after controlling for actual network positions, men, relative to women, were perceived to occupy agentic brokerage roles in the friendship network—those roles involving less constraint and higher betweenness and outdegree centrality. Study 2 showed that if a team member misperceived a woman to occupy such roles, the woman was seen as competent but not warm. Furthermore, to the extent that gender stereotypes were endorsed by many individuals in the team, women performed worse on their individual tasks. But teams in which members fell back on well-rehearsed perceptions of gender roles (men rather than women misperceived as brokers) performed better than teams in which members tended toward misperceiving women occupying agentic brokerage roles. Taken together, these results contribute to unlocking the mechanisms by which social networks affect women’s progress in organizations.	0.4815900
t_88	Ertug, G., Gargiulo, M., Galunic, C., & Zou, T. (2018). Homophily and individual performance. Organization Science, 29(5), 912-930.	We study the relationship between choice homophily in instrumental relationships and individual performance in knowledge-intensive organizations. Although homophily should make it easier for people to get access to some colleagues, it may also lead to neglecting relationships with other colleagues, reducing the diversity of information people access through their network. Using data on instrumental ties between bonus-eligible employees in the equity sales and trading division of a global investment bank, we show that the relationship between an employee’s choice of similar colleagues and the employee’s performance is contingent on the position this employee occupies in the formal and informal hierarchy of the bank. More specifically, homophily is negatively associated with performance for bankers in the higher levels of the formal and informal hierarchy whereas the association is either positive or nonexistent for lower hierarchical levels.	0.1038710
t_89	Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of personality and social psychology, 49(3), 607.	In a prestudy, a questionnaire was sent to 97 professors in the fields of art, business, philosophy, and physics; it was also given to 17 laypersons. Subjects were asked to list behaviors characteristic of an ideally intelligent, creative, or wise person in one's field of endeavor, or in general (for laypersons). In experiment I, 285 professors in the same fields and 30 laypersons rated the extent to which each of the behaviors listed at least twice in the prestudy was characteristic of an ideally intelligent, creative, or wise individual. In experiment II, a subset of the behaviors from the prestudy was sorted by 40 undergraduates to yield a multidimensional space characterizing the subjects' implicit theories for intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. In experiment III, 30 adults rated themselves on a subset of the behaviors from the prestudy, and these ratings were correlated with "ideal prototype" ratings to yield a measure of resemblance to the prototype. Resemblance scores were then correlated with scores on standardized ability tests. In experiment IV, 30 adults rated hypothetical individuals described in simulated letters of recommendation in terms of their intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Results reveal that people have systematic implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom, which are used accurately both in evaluating themselves and in evaluating hypothetical others. Moreover, the implicit theories for each of the constructs show at least some convergent–discriminant validity with respect to each other.	0.8287554
t_90	Chan, T. H., Lee, Y. G., & Jung, H. (2021). Anchored Differentiation: The Role of Temporal Distance in the Comparison and Evaluation of New Product Designs. Organization Science.	A new design can be compared with its contemporaries or older designs. In this study, we argue that the temporal distance between the new design and its comparison play an important role in understanding how a new design’s similarity with other designs contributes to its valuation. Construing the value of designs as a combination of their informational value and their expressive value, we propose the “anchored differentiation” hypothesis. Specifically, we argue that expressive value (which is enhanced by how much the new design appears different from others) is emphasized more than informational value (which is enhanced by how much the new design appears similar to others) compared with contemporary designs. Informational value, however, is emphasized more than expressive value when compared against designs from the past. Therefore, both difference from other contemporary designs (contemporary differentiation) and similarity to other past designs (past anchoring) help increase the value of a new design. We find consistent evidence for our theory across both a field study and an experimental study. Furthermore, we show that this is because temporal distance changes the relative emphasis on expressive and informational values. We discuss our contribution to the growing literature on optimal distinctiveness and design innovation by offering a dynamic perspective that helps resolve the tension between similarities and differences in evaluating new designs.	0.6620513
t_90	Hargadon, A. B., & Douglas, Y. (2001). When innovations meet institutions: Edison and the design of the electric light. Administrative science quarterly, 46(3), 476-501.	This paper considers the role of design, as the emergent arrangement of concrete details that embodies a new idea, in mediating between innovations and established institutional fields as entrepreneurs attempt to introduce change. Analysis of Thomas Edison's system of electric lighting offers insights into how the grounded details of an innovation's design shape its acceptance and ultimate impact. The notion of robust design is introduced to explain how Edison's design strategy enabled his organization to gain acceptance for an innovation that would ultimately displace the existing institutions of the gas industry. By examining the principles through which design allows entrepreneurs to exploit the established institutions while simultaneously retaining the flexibility to displace them, this analysis highlights the value of robust design strategies in innovation efforts, including the phonograph, the online service provider, and the digital video recorder.	0.1083832
t_91	Yang, S., Kher, R., & Newbert, S. L. (2020). What signals matter for social startups? It depends: The influence of gender role congruity on social impact accelerator selection decisions. Journal of Business Venturing, 35(2), 105932.	Social impact accelerators (SIAs) seek to select startups with the potential to generate financial returns and social impact. Through the lenses of signaling theory and gender role congruity theory, we examine 2324 social startups that applied to 123 SIAs globally in 2016 and 2017 and find that SIAs are more likely to accept startups that signal their economic and social credibility. Moreover, while we find that the influence of these signals is strongest when they are congruent with the stereotypes associated with the lead founder's gender, men seem to experience better outcomes from gender incongruity than women.	0.5523364
t_91	Liao, Y. C. (2021). Gender and quality signals: How does gender influence the effectiveness of signals in crowdfunding?. Journal of Small Business Management, 59(sup1), S153-S192.	Combining signaling theory and gender role congruity theory, this study examines if the quality signals of entrepreneurs and their ventures are perceived differently because of their gender, which, in turn, affects the crowdfunding performance. In a sample of 14,729 campaigns in Kickstarter, this study shows that gender determines the effectiveness of signals in enhancing funding performance, but not uniformly to the disadvantage of women. While females are rewarded less with the signals of competence and qualification, they benefit more from the signal of social ties. This study offers implications for evaluating entrepreneurial projects and strategies for crafting an effective pitch.	0.4538462
t_91	Lee, M., & Huang, L. (2018). Gender bias, social impact framing, and evaluation of entrepreneurial ventures. Organization Science, 29(1), 1-16.	Recent studies find that female-led ventures are penalized relative to male-led ventures as a result of role incongruity or a perceived “lack of fit” between female stereotypes and expected personal qualities of business entrepreneurs. We examine whether social impact framing that emphasizes a venture’s social–environmental welfare benefits, which research has shown to elicit stereotypically feminine attributions of warmth, diminishes these penalties. We initially investigate this proposition in a field study of evaluations of early-stage ventures and find evidence of lessened gender penalties for female-led ventures that are presented using a social impact frame. In a second study, we experimentally validate this effect and show that it is mediated by the effect of social impact framing on perceptions of the entrepreneur’s warmth. The effect of social impact frames on venture evaluations did not apply to men, was not a result of perceptions of increased competence, and was not conditional on the gender of evaluators. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that social impact framing increases attributions of warmth for all entrepreneurs but with positive consequences on business evaluation only for female-led ventures, for which increased perceptions of warmth attenuate female entrepreneurs’ gender role incongruity.	0.3008230
t_92	Whittington, K. B. (2018). A tie is a tie? Gender and network positioning in life science inventor collaboration. Research Policy, 47(2), 511-526.	Collaborative relationships are an important anchor of innovative activity, and rates of collaboration in science are on the rise. This research addresses differences in men’s and women’s collaborative positioning and collaborator characteristics in science, and whether network influences on scientists’ future productivity may be contingent on gender. Utilizing co-inventor network relations that span thirty years of global life science patenting across sectors, geographic locations, and technological background, I present trends of men’s and women’s involvement in patenting and their collaborative characteristics across time. Amidst some network similarities, women are less likely to connect otherwise unconnected inventors (brokerage) and have greater status-asymmetries between themselves and their co-inventors. In multivariate models that include past and future activity, I find that some network benefits are contingent on gender. Men receive greater returns from network positioning for brokerage ties, and when collaborating with men. Women benefit from collaborating with women, and are more likely to collaborate with women, but both men and women collaborate with mostly men. I discuss the implications of these results for innovative growth, as well as for policies that support men’s and women’s career development.	0.5298643
t_92	Burt, R. S. (1998). The gender of social capital. Rationality and society, 10(1), 5-46.	Legitimacy affects returns to social capital. I begin with the network structure of social capital, explaining the information and control benefits of structural holes. The holes in a network are entrepreneurial opportunities to add value, and persons rich in such opportunities are expected to be more successful than their peers. Accumulating empirical research supports the prediction. However, women here pose a puzzle. The entrepreneurial networks linked to early promotion for senior men do not work for women. Solving the gender puzzle is an occasion to see how network models of social capital can be used to identify people not accepted as legitimate members of a population, and to describe how such people get access to social capital by borrowing the network of a strategic partner.	0.2454545
t_93	Lu, S., Bartol, K. M., Venkataramani, V., Zheng, X., & Liu, X. (2019). Pitching novel ideas to the boss: The interactive effects of employees’ idea enactment and influence tactics on creativity assessment and implementation. Academy of Management Journal, 62(2), 579-606.	Employees’ creative ideas often do not receive positive assessments from managers and, therefore, lose the opportunity to be implemented. We draw on Dutton and Ashford’s (1993) issue-selling framework to test a dual-approach model predicting that employees’ use of both high levels of idea enactment behaviors (characterized by use of demos, prototypes, or other physical objects when presenting ideas) and high levels of upward influence tactics will have an interactive effect on the extent to which their creative ideas are positively assessed by their supervisors and, in turn, implemented. We found support for this interactive effect of idea enactment and influence tactics in two studies: a field study of 192 employees and 54 supervisors in a video game and animation company and an experimental study with 264 participants. In the experimental study, we also demonstrated that the benefits of using this dual approach are more likely to accrue when selling a more novel idea rather than a less novel, more mundane one. Both studies highlight the mediating role of supervisors’ creativity assessment in implementing employees’ creative ideas.	0.5455026
t_93	Baer, M. (2012). Putting creativity to work: The implementation of creative ideas in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 55(5), 1102-1119.	The production of creative ideas does not necessarily imply their implementation. This study examines the possibility that the relation between creativity and implementation is regulated by individuals' motivation to put their ideas into practice and their ability to network, or, alternatively, the number of strong relationships they maintain. Using data from 216 employees and their supervisors, results indicated that individuals were able to improve the otherwise negative odds of their creative ideas being realized when they expected positive outcomes to be associated with their implementation efforts and when they were skilled networkers or had developed a set of strong “buy-in” relationships.	0.1342857
t_94	Goldberg, A., Hannan, M. T., & Kovács, B. (2016). What does it mean to span cultural boundaries? Variety and atypicality in cultural consumption. American Sociological Review, 81(2), 215-241.	We propose a synthesis of two lines of sociological research on boundary spanning in cultural production and consumption. One, research on cultural omnivorousness, analyzes choice by heterogeneous audiences facing an array of crisp cultural offerings. The other, research on categories in markets, analyzes reactions by homogeneous audiences to objects that vary in the degree to which they conform to categorical codes. We develop a model of heterogeneous audiences evaluating objects that vary in typicality. This allows consideration of orientations on two dimensions of cultural preference: variety and typicality. We propose a novel analytic framework to map consumption behavior in these two dimensions. We argue that one audience type, those who value variety and typicality, are especially resistant to objects that span boundaries. We test this argument in an analysis of two large-scale datasets of reviews of films and restaurants.	0.6610063
t_94	Trapido, D. (2015). How novelty in knowledge earns recognition: The role of consistent identities. Research Policy, 44(8), 1488-1500.	The novelty of scientific or technological knowledge has a paradoxical dual implication. Highly novel ideas are subject to a higher risk of rejection by their evaluating audiences than incremental, “normal science” contributions. Yet the same audiences may deem a contribution to knowledge valuable because it is highly novel. This study develops and tests an explanation of this dual effect. It is argued that the recognition premium that highly acclaimed authors’ work enjoys disproportionately accrues to work that is consistent with the authors’ previously developed identity. Because high novelty is a salient identity marker, authors’ past recognition for highly novel work helps same authors’ new highly novel work earn positive audience valuation. It is further argued that, because recognition for novelty is partly inherited from mentors, disciples of highly acclaimed producers of novel work are more likely to have their work prized for its novelty. In contrast, the authors’ or their mentors’ recognition earned for relatively less novel work does not trigger similar spillover effects and leaves the authors vulnerable to the novelty discount. Unique data on the productivity, career histories, and mentoring relations of academic electrical engineers support these arguments.	0.1009132
t_95	Pontikes, E. G. (2012). Two sides of the same coin: How ambiguous classification affects multiple audiences’ evaluations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 57(1), 81-118.	This paper questions findings indicating that when organizations are hard to classify they will suffer in terms of external evaluations. Here, I suggest this depends on the audience evaluating the organization. Audiences that are ‘‘market-takers’’ consume or evaluate goods and use market labels to find and assess organizations; for them, ambiguous labels make organizations unclear and therefore less appealing. ‘‘Market-makers’’ are interested in redefining the market structure, and as a result, this type of audience sees the same ambiguity as flexible and therefore more appealing. I tested these ideas in a longitudinal analysis of U.S. software organizations between 1990 and 2002. As predicted, organizations that claim ambiguous labels are less appealing to consumers, an audience of market-takers, but more appealing to venture capitalists, who are market-makers. Further, when labels are ambiguous, aversion to or preference for ambiguity arises from the label itself. Identifying with multiple ambiguous labels does not make an organization even less appealing to a consumer or more appealing to a venture capitalist. Finally, all types of venture capitalists are not alike in how they react to a label’s ambiguity. Independent venture capitalists act as market-makers and prefer organizations with ambiguous labels, while corporate venture capitalists act as market-takers and avoid them.	0.8418502
t_96	Balachandra, L., Briggs, T., Eddleston, K., & Brush, C. (2019). Don’t pitch like a girl!: How gender stereotypes influence investor decisions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 43(1), 116-137.	We consider the role that gender-stereotyped behaviors play in investors’ evaluations of men- and women-owned ventures. Contrary to research suggesting that investors exhibit bias against women, we find that being a woman entrepreneur does not diminish interest by investors. Rather, our findings reveal that investors are biased against the display of feminine-stereotyped behaviors by entrepreneurs, men and women alike. Our study finds that investor decisions are driven in part by observations of gender-stereotyped behaviors and the implicit associations with the entrepreneur’s business competency, rather than the entrepreneur’s sex.	0.2791304
t_96	Johnson, M. A., Stevenson, R. M., & Letwin, C. R. (2018). A woman's place is in the… startup! Crowdfunder judgments, implicit bias, and the stereotype content model. Journal of Business Venturing, 33(6), 813-831.	We examine investor stereotypes and implicit bias in crowdfunding decisions. Prior research in formal venture capital settings demonstrates that investors tend to have a funding bias against women. However, in crowdfunding – wherein a ‘crowd’ of amateur investors make relatively small investments in new companies – our empirical observations reveal a funding advantage for women. We explain the causal mechanism underlying this counterintuitive finding by drawing upon stereotype content theory and testing a dual path moderated-mediation model. Based on archival data and a follow-up experiment, our findings suggest common gender biases held by amateur investors function to increase female stereotype perceptions in the form of trustworthiness judgments, which subsequently increases investors' willingness to invest in early-stage women-led ventures. We discuss our results with specific attention to how our findings extend the entrepreneurship funding literature as well as the gender dynamics literature in entrepreneurship and organization research more broadly.	0.2144279
t_96	Kanze, D., Huang, L., Conley, M. A., & Higgins, E. T. (2018). We ask men to win and women not to lose: Closing the gender gap in startup funding. Academy of Management Journal, 61(2), 586-614.	Male entrepreneurs are known to raise higher levels of funding than their female counterparts, but the underlying mechanism for this funding disparity remains con- tested. Drawing upon regulatory focus theory, we propose that the gap originates with a gender bias in the questions that investors pose to entrepreneurs. A field study con- ducted on question-and-answer interactions at TechCrunch Disrupt New York City during 2010 through 2016 reveals that investors tend to ask male entrepreneurs promotion-focused questions and female entrepreneurs prevention-focused questions, and that entrepreneurs tend to respond with matching regulatory focus. This distinction in the regulatory focus of investor questions and entrepreneur responses results in di- vergent funding outcomes for entrepreneurs whereby those asked promotion-focused questions raise significantly higher amounts of funding than those asked prevention- focused questions. We demonstrate that every additional prevention-focused question significantly hinders the entrepreneur’s ability to raise capital, fully mediating gender’s effect on funding. By experimentally testing an intervention, we find that entrepreneurs can significantly increase funding for their startups when responding to prevention- focused questions with promotion-focused answers. As we offer evidence regarding tactics that can be employed to diminish the gender disadvantage in funding outcomes, this study has practical as well as theoretical implications for entrepreneurship.	0.1230483
t_97	Brashears, M. E. (2008). Gender and homophily: Differences in male and female association in Blau space. Social Science Research, 37(2), 400-415.	Homophily, the tendency for similar individuals to associate, is one of the most robust findings in social science. Despite this robustness, we have less information about how personal characteristics relate to differences in the strength of homophily. Nor do we know much about the impact of personal characteristics on judgments of relative dissimilarity. The present study compares the strength of age, religious, and educational homophily for male and female non-kin ties using network data from the 1985 General Social Survey. It also compares the patterning of ties among dissimilar alters for both sexes. The results of this exploratory effort indicate that males and females are almost equally homophilous, although religious homophily exerts a stronger influence on females than males. Males and females do, however, differ in their tendency to associate with certain types of dissimilar alters. Education is essentially uniform for both sexes, religious difference is more important for females than males, and those over sixty or under thirty are less different from the middle categories of age for females than for males. The results suggest that males are able to bridge larger areas of social space in their non-kin interpersonal networks and likely accumulate greater social capital as a consequence.	0.1645533
t_97	Brashears, M. E. (2008). Sex, society, and association: A cross-national examination of status construction theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 71(1), 72-85.	Status construction theory (SCT) has established a set of sufficient conditions for the formation of status characteristics that define informal hierarchies. However, while it has proven successful in explaining the development of status-laden personal characteristics in the laboratory, relatively less attention has been devoted to its predictions at the societal level. This paper alters the current state of affairs by examining the predictions of status construction theory using the 2001 International Social Survey Program's networks module. This data source allows the comparison of a macro-level distribution of a goal object (authority positions) with a novel measure of status derived from the social networks literature. The results are consistent with the predictions of SCT, supporting the theory outside the laboratory and cross-nationally.	0.1645533
t_97	Vásárhelyi, O., Zakhlebin, I., Milojevic, S., & Horvát, E. Á. (2021). Gender inequities in the online dissemination of scholars’ work. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(39).	Unbiased science dissemination has the potential to alleviate some of the known gender disparities in academia by exposing female scholars’ work to other scientists and the public. And yet, we lack comprehensive understanding of the relationship between gender and science dissemination online. Our large-scale analyses, encompassing half a million scholars, revealed that female scholars’ work is mentioned less frequently than male scholars’ work in all research areas. When exploring the characteristics associated with online success, we found that the impact of prior work, social capital, and gendered tie formation in coauthorship networks are linked with online success for men, but not for women—even in the areas with the highest female representation. These results suggest that while men’s scientific impact and collaboration networks are associated with higher visibility online, there are no universally identifiable facets associated with success for women. Our comprehensive empirical evidence indicates that the gender gap in online science dissemination is coupled with a lack of understanding the characteristics that are linked with female scholars’ success, which might hinder efforts to close the gender gap in visibility.	0.1189573
t_98	Westphal, J. D., & Milton, L. P. (2000). How experience and network ties affect the influence of demographic minorities on corporate boards. Administrative science quarterly, 45(2), 366-398.	This study examines how the influence of directors who are demographic minorities on corporate boards is contingent on the prior experience of board members and the larger social structural context in which demographic differences are embedded. We assess the effects of minority status according to functional background, industry background, education, race, and gender for a large sample of corporate outside directors at Fortune/Forbes 500 companies. The results show that (1) the prior experience of minority directors in a minority role on other boards can enhance their ability to exert influence on the focal board, while the prior experience of minority directors in a majority role can reduce their influence; (2) the prior experience of majority directors in a minority role on other boards can enhance the influence of minority directors on the focal board, and (3) minority directors are more influential if they have direct or indirect social network ties to majority directors through common memberships on other boards. Results suggest that demographic minorities can avoid out-group biases that would otherwise minimize their influence when they have prior experience on other boards or social network ties to other directors that enable them to create the perception of similarity with the majority.	0.6848889
t_98	Hillman, A. J., Shropshire, C., & Cannella Jr, A. A. (2007). Organizational predictors of women on corporate boards. Academy of Management Journal, 50(4), 941-952.	Women are increasing in number among corporations’ boards of directors, yet their representation is far from uniform across firms. In this study, we adopted a resource dependence theory lens to identify organizational predictors of women on boards. We tested our hypotheses using panel data from the 1,000 U.S. firms that were largest in terms of sales between 1990 and 2003. We found that organizational size, industry type, firm diversification strategy, and network effects (linkages to other boards with women directors) significantly impact the likelihood of female representation on boards of directors.	0.1411215
t_99	Lutter, M. (2015). Do women suffer from network closure? The moderating effect of social capital on gender inequality in a project-based labor market, 1929 to 2010. American Sociological Review, 80(2), 329-358.	That social capital matters is an established fact in the social sciences. Less clear, however, is how different forms of social capital affect gender disadvantages in career advancement. Focusing on a project-based type of labor market, namely the U.S. film industry, this study argues that women suffer a “closure penalty” and face severe career disadvantages when collaborating in cohesive teams. At the same time, gender disadvantages are reduced for women who build social capital in open networks with higher degrees of diversity and information flow. Using large-scale longitudinal data on career profiles of about one million performances by 97,657 film actors in 369,099 film productions between the years 1929 and 2010, I analyze career survival models and interaction effects between gender and different measures of social capital and information openness. Findings reveal that female actors have a higher risk of career failure than do their male colleagues when affiliated in cohesive networks, but women have better survival chances when embedded in open, diverse structures. This study contributes to the understanding of how and what type of social capital can be either a beneficial resource for otherwise disadvantaged groups or a constraining mechanism that intensifies gender differences in career advancement.	0.4265823
t_99	Ibarra, H. (1997). Paving an alternative route: Gender differences in managerial networks. Social psychology quarterly, 91-102.	This research uses the network-analytic concepts of homophily, tie strength, and range to explore gender differences in characteristics of middle managers' information and career support networks. When the effects of position and potential for future advancement were held constant, women's networks were less homophilous than men's. Women high in advancement potential, however, relied to a greater extent than both high-potential men and less high-potential women on close ties and relationships outside their subunits. On the basis of these findings, we suggest that different types of networks may provide alternative routes to similar career resources for men and for women.	0.2921260
t_99	Goldberg, A., Hannan, M. T., & Kovács, B. (2016). What does it mean to span cultural boundaries? Variety and atypicality in cultural consumption. American Sociological Review, 81(2), 215-241.	We propose a synthesis of two lines of sociological research on boundary spanning in cultural production and consumption. One, research on cultural omnivorousness, analyzes choice by heterogeneous audiences facing an array of crisp cultural offerings. The other, research on categories in markets, analyzes reactions by homogeneous audiences to objects that vary in the degree to which they conform to categorical codes. We develop a model of heterogeneous audiences evaluating objects that vary in typicality. This allows consideration of orientations on two dimensions of cultural preference: variety and typicality. We propose a novel analytic framework to map consumption behavior in these two dimensions. We argue that one audience type, those who value variety and typicality, are especially resistant to objects that span boundaries. We test this argument in an analysis of two large-scale datasets of reviews of films and restaurants.	0.1389937
t_100	Lee, E., Karimi, F., Wagner, C., Jo, H. H., Strohmaier, M., & Galesic, M. (2019). Homophily and minority-group size explain perception biases in social networks. Nature human behaviour, 3(10), 1078-1087.	People’s perceptions about the size of minority groups in social networks can be biased, often showing systematic over- or underestimation. These social perception biases are often attributed to biased cognitive or motivational processes. Here we show that both over- and underestimation of the size of a minority group can emerge solely from structural properties of social networks. Using a generative network model, we show that these biases depend on the level of homophily, its asymmetric nature and on the size of the minority group. Our model predictions correspond well with empirical data from a cross-cultural survey and with numerical calculations from six real-world networks. We also identify circumstances under which individuals can reduce their biases by relying on perceptions of their neighbours. This work advances our understanding of the impact of network structure on social perception biases and offers a quantitative approach for addressing related issues in society.	0.5094675
t_100	Centola, D., Becker, J., Brackbill, D., & Baronchelli, A. (2018). Experimental evidence for tipping points in social convention. Science, 360(6393), 1116-1119.	Theoretical models of critical mass have shown how minority groups can initiate social change dynamics in the emergence of new social conventions. Here, we study an artificial system of social conventions in which human subjects interact to establish a new coordination equilibrium. The findings provide direct empirical demonstration of the existence of a tipping point in the dynamics of changing social conventions. When minority groups reached the critical mass—that is, the critical group size for initiating social change—they were consistently able to overturn the established behavior. The size of the required critical mass is expected to vary based on theoretically identifiable features of a social setting. Our results show that the theoretically predicted dynamics of critical mass do in fact emerge as expected within an empirical system of social coordination.	0.1824242
t_100	Hollander, E. P. (1958). Conformity, status, and idiosyncrasy credit. Psychological review, 65(2), 117.	Beginning with the consideration that social behavior depends upon attributes of the individual, conditions of the situation, and inputs to a dynamic system arising from their interaction, a theoretical conception relating conformity and status is presented. The major mediating construct introduced is 'idiosyncrasy credit,' taken to be an index of status, in the operational sense of permitting deviations from common 'expectancies' of the group. Credits are postulated to increase or decrease as a function of the group's perception of the individual's task performance and generalized characteristics, and of his 'idiosyncratic behavior.' Though increases in credit are seen to permit greater latitude for idiosyncratic behavior, motivational and perceptual states of the individual, and group-level phenomena, are also considered.	0.1686131

Detecting communities

Communities of topics

Next, let’s take a look at the relationship between our topics based on how frequent they cooccur in an abstract. One way to do this is to generate a dendrogram of topics. Here, topics closer to each other are more likely to be present in the same abstract than topics further apart form each other.

# get topic prevalence in each paper
paper_topic <- as.data.frame(model_100$theta)

# get the data with paper id as rows and topic prevalence as colum 
paper_topic[,1:ncol(paper_topic)-1] %>% 
  # convert this dataframe into a matrix
  as.matrix() %>% 
  # transpose the matrix so that paper id is now the columns and topic prevalence is now the rows
  t() %>% 
  # calculate the Jensen Shannon distance between each topic's vectors of probability that it is present in the abstract of each of 103 papers (i.e., comparing topics based on its presence in the papers)
  philentropy::JSD() %>% 
  # convert to a distance matrix
  as.dist() %>% 
  # conduct hierarchical cluster analysis on the topics
  hclust(method = "ward.D") -> topic_clusters

Metric: 'jensen-shannon' using unit: 'log2'; comparing: 99 vectors.

# rename topic labels 
topic_clusters$labels <- paste(model_100_sum$topic, model_100_sum$label_1)

topic_clusters %>% 
  # convert to dendrogram
  as.dendrogram() %>%
  # set label color 
  set("labels_col", value = c("#ecbdb1", "#f46e7b", "#f23955", "#7fd1c0", "#baf0e4",
                              "#ecbdb1", "#f46e7b", "#f23955", "#7fd1c0", "#baf0e4",
                              "#ecbdb1", "#f46e7b", "#f23955", "#7fd1c0", "#baf0e4",
                              "#ecbdb1", "#f46e7b", "#f23955", "#7fd1c0", "#baf0e4"), k=20) %>% 
  # set label size
  set("labels_cex", 1) %>% 
  # set branches color
  set("branches_k_color", value = c("#ecbdb1", "#f46e7b", "#f23955", "#7fd1c0", "#baf0e4",
                              "#ecbdb1", "#f46e7b", "#f23955", "#7fd1c0", "#baf0e4",
                              "#ecbdb1", "#f46e7b", "#f23955", "#7fd1c0", "#baf0e4",
                              "#ecbdb1", "#f46e7b", "#f23955", "#7fd1c0", "#baf0e4"), k = 20) %>%
  # set branches size
  set("branches_lwd", 1.5) %>% 
  as.ggdend() %>% 
  ggplot(horiz = T) +
  scale_y_reverse(expand = c(0.5, 0))

Scale for 'y' is already present. Adding another scale for 'y', which will
replace the existing scale.

Communities of papers

We can also visualize the relationship among our papers based on how frequent they include the same topics in their abstract. Once again, let’s create a dendrogram, but instead of topics this is a dendrogram of papers. Here, papers closer to each other are more likely to be include the same topics in their abstract than papers further apart form each other.

# get the data with paper id as rows and topic prevalence as colum 
paper_topic[,1:ncol(paper_topic)-1] %>% 
  # convert this dataframe into a matrix
  as.matrix() %>% 
  # calculate the Jensen Shannon distance each paper's vector of probability that each of the 86 topics is present in its abstract (i.e., comparing papers based on its topic distribution)
  philentropy::JSD() %>% 
  # convert to a distance matrix
  as.dist() %>% 
  # conduct hierarchical cluster analysis on the topics
  hclust(method = "ward.D") -> paper_clusters

Metric: 'jensen-shannon' using unit: 'log2'; comparing: 109 vectors.

# rename topic labels 
paper_clusters$labels <- reading$id

paper_clusters %>% 
  # convert into dendrogram
  as.dendrogram() %>%
  # set label color 
  set("labels_col", value = c("#058fb2", "#f9ae33", "#47c7eb", "#c8d9cd", "#527e4b",
                              "#058fb2", "#f9ae33", "#47c7eb", "#c8d9cd", "#527e4b",
                              "#058fb2", "#f9ae33", "#47c7eb", "#c8d9cd", "#527e4b",
                              "#058fb2", "#f9ae33", "#47c7eb", "#c8d9cd", "#527e4b"), k=20) %>% 
  # set label size
  set("labels_cex", 1) %>% 
  # set branches color
  set("branches_k_color", value = c("#058fb2", "#f9ae33", "#47c7eb", "#c8d9cd", "#527e4b",
                              "#058fb2", "#f9ae33", "#47c7eb", "#c8d9cd", "#527e4b",
                              "#058fb2", "#f9ae33", "#47c7eb", "#c8d9cd", "#527e4b",
                              "#058fb2", "#f9ae33", "#47c7eb", "#c8d9cd", "#527e4b"), k = 20) %>%
  # set branches size
  set("branches_lwd", 1.5) %>% 
  as.ggdend() %>% 
  ggplot(horiz = T) +
  scale_y_reverse(expand = c(0.5, 0))

Scale for 'y' is already present. Adding another scale for 'y', which will
replace the existing scale.

Group differences in topic distributions

Now let’s move on the how topic prevalence differ across different groups of papers.

Differences across fields

To visualize how fields differ in the topics they mentioned, we can create a heatmap that uses shades of color to depict variation in topic prevalence in each field - the darker the shades the more prevalent a topic is.

# create id for each paper using row names
paper_topic$id <- row.names(paper_topic) 

#converting the document topic matrix to a "tidy" form
pivot_longer(paper_topic,
             cols=starts_with("t_"),
             names_to="topic",
             values_to="prevalence") %>% 
  # rename topics so that they will be ordered according to topic number
  mutate(topic = case_when(
    str_detect(topic, "_([0-9]$)") ~ sub("_([0-9]$)", "_00\\1", topic),
    str_detect(topic, "_([1-9][0-9]$)") ~ sub("_([1-9][0-9]$)", "_0\\1", topic),
    TRUE ~ topic)) -> paper_topic_l

paper_topic_l %>%
  # get field column from original data
  left_join(reading %>% select(id, field)) %>%  
  # get average topic prevalence for each field
  group_by(topic, field) %>%
  summarize(mp = mean(prevalence)) %>% 
  # cast back to "wide" format with each row as a field and each column as a topic
  pivot_wider(values_from = mp,
              names_from = topic) -> field_topic

Joining, by = "id"

`summarise()` has grouped output by 'topic'. You can override using the `.groups` argument.

# convert to matrix
field_topic %>% 
  # remove field variable
  select(-field) %>% 
  # transpose the matrix
  t() %>% 
  # convert to matrix type
  as.matrix() -> field_topic_mat

# change row names - topic labels
rownames(field_topic_mat) <- paste(model_100_sum$topic, model_100_sum$label_1)

# change column names - field labels
colnames(field_topic_mat) <- field_topic$field

# create heatmap
heatmap(field_topic_mat, 
        # normalize column values 
        scale = "column", 
        # set size for row labels
        cexRow = 0.7, 
        # set size for column labels
        cexCol = 1,
        # set the color palette
        col = colorRampPalette(RColorBrewer::brewer.pal(9, "YlOrBr"))(256))

This heatmap are quite hard to see because we have many topics. Let’s filter out the 10 most prevalent topics in each field.

paper_topic_l %>%
  # get field column from original data
  left_join(reading %>% select(id, field)) %>% 
  # get average topic prevalence for each field
  group_by(topic, field) %>%
  summarize(mp = mean(prevalence)) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  group_by(field) %>% 
  slice_max(mp, n = 10) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  mutate(topic = reorder_within(topic, mp, field)) %>% 
  ggplot(aes(topic, mp, fill = field)) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  coord_flip() +
  scale_x_reordered() +
  scale_y_continuous(expand = c(0, 0)) +
  facet_wrap(~field, ncol = 4, scales = "free") +
  labs(x = "Average topic prevalence", y = NULL,
       title = "What are the 10 most prevalent topics in each field?") +                        
  theme(strip.text.x = element_text(size = 11))

Joining, by = "id"

`summarise()` has grouped output by 'topic'. You can override using the `.groups` argument.

Differences across time

Next, let’s look at how topic distribution changes across years.

paper_topic_l %>%
  # get field column from original data
  left_join(reading %>% select(id, year)) %>% 
  # get average topic prevalence for each field
  group_by(topic, year) %>%
  summarize(mp = mean(prevalence)) %>% 
  # cast back to "wide" format with each row as a field and each column as a topic
  pivot_wider(values_from = mp,
              names_from = topic) -> year_topic

Joining, by = "id"

`summarise()` has grouped output by 'topic'. You can override using the `.groups` argument.

# convert to matrix
year_topic %>% 
  # remove field variable
  select(-year) %>% 
  # transpose the matrix
  t() %>% 
  # convert to matrix type
  as.matrix() -> year_topic_mat

# change row names - topic labels
rownames(year_topic_mat) <- paste(model_100_sum$topic, model_100_sum$label_1)

# change column names - field labels
colnames(year_topic_mat) <- year_topic$year

# create heatmap
heatmap(year_topic_mat, 
        # normalize column values 
        scale = "column", 
        # set size for row labels
        cexRow = 0.7, 
        # set size for column labels
        cexCol = 1,
        # set the color palette
        col = colorRampPalette(RColorBrewer::brewer.pal(9, "YlOrBr"))(256))

Next, we can get the 20 most prevalent topics in each year.

paper_topic_l %>%
  # get field column from original data
  left_join(reading %>% select(id, year)) %>% 
  # get average topic prevalence for each field
  group_by(topic, year) %>%
  summarize(mp = mean(prevalence)) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  group_by(year) %>% 
  slice_max(mp, n = 10) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  mutate(topic = reorder_within(topic, mp, year)) %>% 
  ggplot(aes(topic, mp)) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE, fill = "#2BAE66FF") +
  coord_flip() +
  scale_x_reordered() +
  scale_y_continuous(expand = c(0, 0)) +
  facet_wrap(~year, ncol = 3, scales = "free") +
  labs(x = "Average topic prevalence", y = NULL,
       title = "What are the 10 most prevalent topics in each year?") +
  theme(plot.title = element_text(size = 30))

Joining, by = "id"

`summarise()` has grouped output by 'topic'. You can override using the `.groups` argument.

We can also examine differences across decades. First let’s create a heatmap.

paper_topic_l %>% 
  left_join(reading %>% select(id, decade)) %>% 
  group_by(decade, topic) %>% 
  summarize(prevalence = mean(prevalence)) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  group_by(decade) %>% 
  mutate(prevalence_normalized = prevalence/max(prevalence)) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  select(-prevalence) %>% 
  pivot_wider(values_from = prevalence_normalized,
              names_from = topic) -> decade_topic 

Joining, by = "id"

`summarise()` has grouped output by 'decade'. You can override using the `.groups` argument.

# convert to matrix
decade_topic %>% 
  # remove field variable
  select(-decade) %>% 
  # transpose the matrix
  t() %>% 
  # convert to matrix type
  as.matrix() -> decade_topic_mat

# change row names - topic labels
rownames(decade_topic_mat) <- paste(model_100_sum$topic, model_100_sum$label_1)
# change column names - field labels
colnames(decade_topic_mat) <- decade_topic$decade

# create heatmap
heatmap(decade_topic_mat, 
        # normalize column values 
        scale = "column", 
        # set size for row labels
        cexRow = 0.7, 
        # set size for column labels
        cexCol = 1,
        # set the color palette
        col = colorRampPalette(RColorBrewer::brewer.pal(9, "YlOrBr"))(256))

Instead of one heatmap that includes all decades, we can also create a separate heatmap and dendrogram for each decade.

heat_map_2 <- function(data, name = "") {
  Heatmap(data, 
          width = unit(0.5, "cm"), 
          col = colorRamp2(c(min(data),max(data)), c("white", "#990011FF")),
          row_names_gp = grid::gpar(fontsize = 7),
          show_column_names = F,
          heatmap_legend_param = list(title = ""),
          column_title = name,
          # show_heatmap_legend = F,
          row_dend_width = unit(9, "cm")) 
          }

heat_map_by_decades <-apply(decade_topic_mat, 2, heat_map_2)

What does the topic distribution look like in the 2010s?

heat_map_by_decades$`2010s`

What about the 2020s?

heat_map_by_decades$`2020s`

Differences across two major research streams

Now let’s see how topic distribution differs between the two research streams of my comps.

paper_topic_l %>% 
  left_join(reading %>% select(id, research_stream)) %>% 
  group_by(research_stream, topic) %>% 
  summarize(prevalence = mean(prevalence)) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  group_by(research_stream) %>% 
  mutate(prevalence_normalized = prevalence/max(prevalence)) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  select(-prevalence) %>% 
  pivot_wider(values_from = prevalence_normalized,
              names_from = topic) -> theme_topic 

Joining, by = "id"

`summarise()` has grouped output by 'research_stream'. You can override using the `.groups` argument.

# convert to matrix
theme_topic %>% 
  # remove field variable
  select(-research_stream) %>% 
  # transpose the matrix
  t() %>% 
  # convert to matrix type
  as.matrix() -> theme_topic_mat

# change row names - topic labels
rownames(theme_topic_mat) <- paste(model_100_sum$topic, model_100_sum$label_1)
# change column names - field labels
colnames(theme_topic_mat) <- theme_topic$Topic

Warning: Unknown or uninitialised column: `Topic`.

Let’s start with the “Network and gender” stream!

heat_map_2(theme_topic_mat[,1], "Network and gender") 

heat_map_2(theme_topic_mat[,2], "Novelty reception") 

Finally let’s also get the most prevalent topics in each theme.

paper_topic_l %>%
  # get research stream column from original data
  left_join(reading %>% select(id, research_stream)) %>% 
  # get average topic prevalence for each field
  group_by(topic, research_stream) %>%
  summarize(mp = mean(prevalence)) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  group_by(research_stream) %>% 
  slice_max(mp, n = 20) %>% 
  ungroup() %>% 
  mutate(topic = reorder_within(topic, mp, research_stream)) %>% 
  ggplot(aes(topic, mp, fill = research_stream)) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  coord_flip() +
  scale_x_reordered() +
  scale_y_continuous(expand = c(0, 0)) +
  facet_wrap(~research_stream, scales = "free") +
  scale_fill_manual(values = c("#317773", "#E2D1F9")) +
  labs(x = "Average topic prevalence", y = NULL,
       title = "What are the 10 most prevalent topics in each research stream?") +
  theme_minimal()

Joining, by = "id"

`summarise()` has grouped output by 'topic'. You can override using the `.groups` argument.